CHAPTER 3

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 920.

PHONETIC, MORPHIMIC AND LEXICAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF A LITERARY WORK

All images of a literary work are created by the vocabulary of a language, deliberate choice of words and their specific arrangement. A word is a material embodiment of literary speech. Taking part in the creation of an image the word becomes its form. At the same time the word is a component of the image. It is through the word that the unity of the form and the contents is created. The bright and complicated character of a literary image is understood through the words and syntactic structures used.

Words as vocabulary units possess lexical, grammatical, phonetic, valence characteristics which are registered in dictionaries and have universal character, identical for all the speakers of the language. On the other hand, words are capable of evoking different associations and individual reactions which is connected with their symbolic character. Thus, the word demonstrates its universal and individual abilities of describing and presenting the plot of a literary work or creating a certain type of an image. Actually, it is through the words that we understand the static or dynamic development of the plot, the lyric or tragic type of narration, the positive or the negative evaluation of people, events or facts. For actual speech dictionary characteristics of words are more important as they serve as substitutes of the fragments of concrete reality. In this way words approximately but correctly reflect the outer world in our minds and make communication possible. Literary, emotive speech brings to the surface quite different features of words. One of the most important functions of a literary text is to expose the author's viewpoint, to arouse in the reader certain emotional response. That is why the role of the associative semantic relations of words becomes more important than their dictionary meanings. It is due to this ability of the word that a literary text obtains the ability of increasing the informative value of a literary work. It is with the help of the specific semantic and emotive abilities of words that the reader is able to remember literary works throughout all his life.

Different properties of words in a literary work are revealed through their deliberate choice. That is why words of a definite literary work make up a system which is relevant for this particular text. This is achieved through the cohesion of elements which makes each literary work unique. As a consequence word images either retain their quotation character or demand explanation when used outside the system.

Linguistic properties of words comprise phonetic, grammatical, lexical and stylistic characteristics.

Phonetic properties of words are realized in the way separate units or phrases sound. The sounds of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other words that it may acquire a desired phonetic effect. Very often the sounding of linguistic units is compared to music. According to the theory of sound symbolism separate sounds due to the articulatory and acoustic properties may awake certain ideas, perceptions, feelings, images, vague though they might be. For example, in poetry one cannot help feeling that the arrangement of sounds carries a definite aesthetic function; probably because of the fact that poetry is not entirely divorced from music. In prose we usually with phonetically motivated words.

Phonetically motivated words are recognized in the text through onomatopoeia. This is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at the imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines, tools, etc), by people (singing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. This is the case of direct onomatopoeia. Here belong such words as ding-dong, cuckoo, mew, roar, splash, crack and the like. Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination of sounds the main aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. For example, in the sentence “And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain” by E.A. Poe, the repetition of the sound [s] produces the acoustic effect resembling the rustling of the silk curtain. Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes observed in the repetition of words which themselves are not phonetically motivated. For example, “Mostly he moved in urgent, precise, clipped movements – go, go, go –and talked the same way – staccato sentences.” (E.A. Poe). The onomatopoetic effect is achieved by the repetition of the word “go”, but the manner of walking is prompted by the word “clipped” which suggests short, quick, abrupt motions and the word-combination “staccato sentences” that emphasizes the desired acoustic effect. In writing such cases of onomatopoeia are usually accompanied by definite punctuation: commas or dashes.

Very often the desired acoustic effect is achieved by breaking the orthoepic norms especially in the speech of the characters of the literary work. In such cases the graphon is used showing mispronunciation or peculiar way of speaking, for example, goin' instead of going, jokin' instead of joking and the like. Sometimes the break of the orthoepic norms is seen in substitution of sounds, for example, ‘tinking instead of thinking. Besides acoustic effect such cases give much information on the character of the literary work. The misuse of the orthoepic norms can betray a foreigner or a poorly educated person. It can also reveal the dialectal way of speaking which is commonplace in many regions not only in Great Britain but in many other countries.

Acoustic and even musical effect can be achieved by the repetition of similar sounds in close succession which is known as alliteration. Usually these are consonants at the beginning of successive words. Alliteration in the English is deeply rooted in the traditions of folklore and is frequently used in verse, emotive prose, in newspaper headlines, in the titles of books, in proverbs and sayings, for example between and betwixt; to rob Peter to pay Paul or in the titles of books “Sense and Sensibility”, “Pride and Prejudice” by Jane Austin, “The School for Scandal” by Michael Sheridan.

It should be said that alliteration is more often used in poetry as the Anglo-Saxon tradition of verse has shown remarkable continuity. Nevertheless, emotive prose makes use of proverbs and sayings and lyrical passages in a literary work combine very often both onomatopoeia and alliteration to make the reader feel the circumstances, the environment, and the state of the soul of the characters to the full range.

The morphological level is presented in literary works by new collocations of morphemes. This is vividly seen in appearance of words whose structure does not contradict to the derivational rules but they can hardly be found in dictionaries. Here belong blendings, fusions or portmanteau words. The last term is due to Lewis Carroll, the author of “Alice in Wonderland” and “Through the Looking Glass” One of the most linguistically conscious writers, he made a special technique of using blends coined by himself, such as chortle(from chuckle and short),galumph(from gallop and triumph). Blendings are the result of conscious creation of words by merging irregular fragments of several words which are aptly called “splinters”. Splinters assume different shapes – they may be severed from the source word at a morpheme boundary as in transceiver(= transmitter and receiver), transistor (= transfer and resistor) or at syllable boundary as in medicare(from medical care), polutician (from pollute and politician) or boundaries of both kinds may be disregarded as in brunch(breakfast and lunch), smog(from smoke and fog). Many blends show some degree of overlapping of vowels, consonants and syllables or echo the word fragment it replaces. This device is often used to attain punning effect, as in foolosopherechoing philosopher.

Blends are coined not infrequently in scientific and technical language as a means of naming new things, as trade names in advertisements. Since some blends break the rules of morphology they result in original combinations which catch quickly. Most of the blends have a colloquial flavour

Another morphological means of creation of imagery is connected with borrowings. It is noteworthy that a number of new affixes appeared in Modern English through different types of borrowing. This can be exemplified by the Russian suffix –nik which came through the words sputnik, lunnik and acquired the meaning of “one who is connected with something”, but which under the influence of beatnik acquired a derogatory flavour and is now a slang suffix. It is used to denote “a person who rejects standard social values and becomes a devotee of some fact or idea”, e.g. folknik, protestnik, filmnik, allrightnik,etc. The suffix –eerdenoting the agent is also characterized by its derogative force, e.g. sonneteer –стихоплёт, profiteer –спекулянт. Words with such a morphological composition show not only the attitude of the speaker (writer) towards the fact discussed but also the alien to the English language structure which attracts the reader's attention. The main function of words with the borrowed affixes is to make the reader think, deduce the semantics of the word, and get much information on the object or character described. This is one of the most expressive and economic means of creating a literary image, the atmosphere of the literary work, and the treatment of the author the events presented.

It should be pointed out that morphemes of Greek and Latin origin have become extremely productive in the English language denoting names of sciences, technical devices such as cyclotron, telecast, metaprogramme, paralinguistics. Being used in literature they serve as professional characteristics showing their belonging to the bookish style of speech. On the other hand, the borrowed morphemes are characterized as stylistically marked. One can hardly fail to perceive the literary-bookish character of such morphemes as pseudo-, ultra-, super-, -oid, etc. Being used in the speech of the characters of the literary work they may produce an ironical or even perfunctory effect.

Considerable morphological expressiveness of words is seen in clippings. Clipping refers to the creation of new words by shortening a word of two or more syllables without changing its class membership. Clipped words, though they often exist together with the longer original source word function as independent lexical units with a certain phonetic shape and lexical meaning of their own. The lexical meanings of the clipped word and its source do not as a rule coincide, for instance, doc refers only to “one who practices medicine”, whereas doctor denotes also “the higher degree given by a university and a person who has received it”, e.g. Doctor of Law. Clipped words always differ from the non-clipped ones in the emotive charge and stylistic reference. Clippings indicate an attitude of familiarity on the part of the user either towards the object denoted or towards the audience, thus clipped words are characteristic of colloquial speech, e.g. mike(from microphone), ad(from advertisement), tec(from detective), pop(from popular music, art), etc. They are especially numerous in various branches of slang: school slang, service slang, newspaper slang, sport slang, etc. Stylistic peculiarity often goes hand in hand with emotional colouring. Diminutiveness is revealed in clipped nursery words: granny, hanky(from handkerchief), nightie(from nightdress) and the like. School and college slang reveal some sort of reckless if not ironical attitude to the things named: caf(from cafeteria), digs, diggings(from lodgings), ec, eco(from economics) and so on. Service slang is very rich in clipped words, e.g. demob(from demobilize), corp(from corporal), sarge(from sergeant), etc.

It should not be forgotten that many of clipped words find their way into the literary language, having lost the connection with the prototype, e.g. bus(from omnibus), bike(from bicycle), maths(from mathematics), max(from maximum) and so on. But in this case they lose their colloquial colouring and become neutral words as the greater part of the vocabulary.

The only type of clipped words that belong to bookish style is the poetical contractions: e'en, e'er, ne'er, o'er.

Though splinters and clippings are usually referred to as words, it is their morphological structure that is of interest. It is obvious that the attention of the reader is attracted by an unusual form of the word which gives rise to analytical estimation of the reasons for its usage. Such words are powerful means for characterizationof personages or tone, the general spirit of a story. Bookish words, slang, deviations from the standard can show the educational level of the character or his attitude towards educated or non-educated people. The occupation of people is clearly seen through the use of terms, jargonisms. Bright examples of characterization of the personages through their speech are given in the books by A. Cronin. Medical terms, professional jargonisms are so skillfully inserted into the plot of his books that they sound natural and do not hinder the understanding of the novels, but, on the contrary, enrich the reader's general knowledge. On the other hand, the tone of Cronin's novels is perceived as serious, worth debating and giving thought.

There are other types of tones. The language of a work of fiction can create a strong sense of social class; establish a sympathetic tone or a distinct tone of mockery. Sometimes writers make fun of their characters. The tone of the story can be labeled humourous if the story is intended to excite laughter that is kindly and tolerant. Humour is warm, entertaining. One cannot but mention the stories by Jerome K. Jerome in which the use of bookish words for the description of routine things produces the effect of mild criticism and tolerance to inexperienced though ambitious people.

Verbal characteristics of personages and the tone of a literary work are created not only with the words of non-standard structure. The vocabulary of the language presents innumerable possibilities of impressive impact on the reader by means of the words. Thus, the vocabulary of the language may be looked upon as a system of various groupings of words which can often help us understand what the literary work means, what kind of a character we deal with, what time or epoch is described, in what way this or that event is treated by the people, etc. Such information can be obtained through the semantic properties of words.

The semantic properties of words can be described on different levels of analysis. The most general level can be seen within groups of words singled out according to a certain principle. As the vocabulary of any language does not remain the same but changes constantly, it is only natural to differentiate words with respect to time axis. It is important to distinguish new words from old ones as literary works may concern historical facts as well as fantastic ideas both of which demand special linguistic units to make the story sound true.

New words and expressions or neologisms are created for new things irrespective of their scale of importance. They may be all-important and concern some social relationships, such as a new form of state or something threatening the very existence of humanity. Or again they may be quite insignificant and short-lived, like fashions in dancing, clothing, hair-do or footwear. In every case either the old words are appropriately changed in meaning or new words are borrowed, or more often coined out of the existing language material according to the patterns and ways productive in the language at a given stage of its development.

Thus, a neologism is any word or set expression, formed according to the productive structural patterns or borrowed from another language and felt by the speakers as something new.

The intense development of science and industry has called forth the invention and introduction of an immense number of new words and changed the meanings of the old ones: allergic, isotope, feedback, nuclear fission, pulsar, supermarket and many more.

In the ever changing field of political life and affairs new words are constantly coined. In this respect it is interesting to pay attention to the process of coining political euphemism. Unemployment is substituted by the down-toned expressions: unusedorunderused manpowerorredundancy. The problem of starvationisthe problem of adequate nourishment, and the poorare onlythe underprivileged.

It should be pointed out that coining of euphemisms is not restricted to the political sphere only. A euphemismis a word of more or less pleasant or at least inoffensive connotation which substitutes the one that is harsh, obscene, indelicate or otherwise unpleasant. The denotational meaning of drunk and merry may be the same. The euphemistic expression merry coincides in denotation with the word it substitutes, but the connotations of the latter fade out and so the utterance on the whole is milder, less offensive. The substitution is accounted for by the speaker's (writer's) tendency to be considerate, and not to offend other people. The effect is achieved because the periphrastic expression is not so harsh, sometimes jocular and usually motivated according to some secondary feature of the notion: naked = in one's birthday suit; pregnant = in the family way. Very often a learned word which sounds less familiar is therefore less offensive, as in drunkenness = intoxication; sweat = perspiration. Euphemistic and direct expressions coexist in the language. Not only English but other modern languages as well, have a definite set of notions attracting euphemistic circumlocutions. These are notions of death, madness, stupidity, drunkenness, certain physiological processes crimes an so on. For example: to die = to be no more, to be gone, to lose one's life, to breathe one's last, to join the silent majority, to go the way of all flesh, to pass away, to be gathered to one's fathers.

In present-day English euphemism is mostly based on some social and ethical standard of behaviour, on the desire not to hurt other people's feelings (lodger = paying guest), to soften painful news (to die = to pass away) and only in the second place, on superstition. A prominent source is still furnished by interjections and swearing addressed to God. To make use of God's name is considered sinful by the Church and yet the word, being expressive, formed the basis of many interjections. Later the word God was substituted by the phonetically similar word goodness: for goodness sake! Goodness gracious! Goodness knows! By Jove! Good Lord! By Gum!

A certain similarity can be observed in the many names for the devil (deuce, Old Nick).

A euphemism builds up lexical opposition with the so-called ordinary word and in this respect may be treated as a neologism. There are several patterns on which neologisms are built. The patterns are of interest because they show some degree of irregularity in the formation. For example: automation(automatic control of production) is irregularly formed from the stem automatic- with the help of the very productive suffix –tion. The corresponding verb to automate is back-formation, e.g.to re-equip in the most modern and automated fashion. Re- is one of the most productive prefixes, the others are anti-,de-, un-,the semi-affixes self- and mini- and many more: antiflash(serving to protect the eyes) or the jocular anti-everything(The nurse was anti-everything, except such of the patients who were good for a gossip – M.Dickens). Other examples are: deglamorize(to make less attractive), rejuvenate(to make young again), rehouse(to move a family, a community, etc. to new houses). The prefix un- increases its combining power, enjoys a new wave of fashion and is now attached even to noun stems. A literary critic refers to the broken-down “Entertainer” (in John Osborne's play) as a “contemporary un-hero, the desperately unfunny Archie Rice”. Unfunnyhere means not amusing in spite of the desire to amuse. A freer use of semi-affixes can be illustrated by mini-dream, mini-morals, midi-coat, midi-frock, self-serviceand many other neologisms.

Compounding by mere juxtaposition of free forms has been a frequent pattern since the Old English period, cf. braintrust (a group of experts), quiz-master(chairman in competitions designed to test the knowledge of the participants). In the neologism back-room boys (men engaged in secret research) the structural cohesion of the compound is enhanced by the attributive function. Cf. redbrick (universities), paperback (books).

A peculiar English and steadily developing type is presented by a combined process of conversion and composition from verbs with postpositives, such as a hold up(armed robbery) from hold-up = rob, fall-out (airborne particles of radio-active matter), teach-in (a student conference or a series of seminars on some burning issue of the day). This pattern is very frequent: read-in, sing-in, stay-in, talk-in.

As a general rule neologisms are at first clearly motivated. An exception is shown by those based on borrowings or learned coinages which, though motivated at an early stage, very soon begin to function as indivisible signs. A good example is the much used term cybernetics (a study of systems of control and communication in living beings and man-made devices), coined by Norbert Wiener from the Greek word kubernetes (steersman) + suffix –ics. Cf. cyborg.

In the course of time the new word is accepted into the word-stock of the language and being often used ceases to be considered new, or else it may not be accepted for some reason or other and vanish from the language. The fate of neologisms is hardly predictable. Once accepted, they may serve as a basis for further word-formation. Thus zip (an imitative word denoting a certain type of fastener) is hardly felt as new, but its derivatives, the verb to zip (to zip from one place to another), the noun zipper and the adjective zippy, appear to be neologisms.

A specific group of neologisms is presented by the so-called nonce-words, the words coined for one occasion. For example: I am sure I can help you publicity-wise with Beethoven's birthday. After all this is a really big thing. We must do whatever is best Beethovenwise. Or: Yes, I said, admiring the fishes and already getting a little whiskified. (Cary) The surgeon rubbed his hands and ha-ha'd. (M.Dickens)

Aldous Huxley creates very effective compound derivatives art-for-arter and trans-beasted (turned into beasts), e.g. there was someone who could never believe that I was not an art-for-arter or as though our lives depended on getting there before the other trans-beasted passengers. J.Priestley derives a personal noun with the suffix –er out of a whole sentence: All they want to be acquaintances, mere How-d'you-doers.

Neologisms and nonce-words are often met in fantastic literature. Fantasy and imagination of writers, profound knowledge of the language system helps them to coin words that are understood as new only after a thorough analysis. Books by Bradbury, Tolkien, Wilde and many more suggest a vast number of new creations which make their works expressive, interesting, educative, puzzling and popular. The newly coined words create bright images, give vivid examples of genuine description and develop the reader's mind. It is noteworthy that neologisms and nonce words produce the effect of unlimited possibilities of the language potential. With the help of new coinages both the reader and the author have an opportunity to sense the reality in a poetic way.

As an opposition to neologisms the language system contains a considerable number of words which describe the phenomena of the past times. These might be things and notions that have ceased to exist but which are extremely important for the historical memory of the people. Here belong obsoleteandarchaic words which are often used in historical novels and stories. In regard to the language system such words may drop out of use, e.g. obsolete words. The disappearance may be caused by purely linguistic factors, when a new name is introduced for the notion that continues to exist. The old word on becoming rare can acquire a new stylistic property obtaining, due to its ancient flavour, a lofty poetic tinge, and thus be accepted in poetic diction. Examples are: aught, betwixt, ere(before), eve, damsel, forbear, hapless, hark, hight(called), morn, save(except),to whit(namely), whilom, woe. When the causes are extra-linguistic, and it is the denotatum that is outdated and no longer used, we deal with historisms. They are very numerous as names for social relations and institutions and objects of material culture of the past. The names of ancient weapons, types of boats, types of carriages, musical instruments or agricultural implements can offer good examples: archer, baldric(belt for a sword, horn, etc.), battering ram(an old type of gun), brougham(a closed carriage having one seat). When the word is no longer in general use but not absolutely obsolete, we call it an archaism.

Archaic words are primarily and predominantly used in the creation of a realistic background to historical novels. It must be pointed out, that the use of historical terms in a passage written in scientific style, say, in an essay on the history of the Danish invasion, will be an example of direct usage of words in their primary denotation. But the same words used in historical narration assume a different expressive power; they carry a special volume of information adding to the logical aspect of the communication.

Walter Scott was an inimitable master in the creation of a historical atmosphere. He never photographs the language of earlier periods; he sparingly introduces into the texture of his language words and expressions more or less obsolete in character, and that is enough to convey the desired effect without interlarding present-day English with outdated elements of speech. For example: methinks, nay, travail, repast and the like.

Obsolete and archaic words are sometimes used for satirical purposes. This is achieved by the non-appropriate usage of archaism in the situation which does not presuppose any. In such cases there appears a sort of discrepancy between the words used and the ordinary situation which is the basis for the necessary satirical effect. For example, in B. Shaw's play “How He Lied to Her Husband” a youth of eighteen, who is speaking of his feelings towards a “female of thirty-seven” expresses himself in a language which is not in conformity with the situation: Perfect love casteth off fear.

Archaic words, word-forms and word-combinations are also used to create an elevated effect. This is clearly seen in various official documents, issues of law, business letters, etc. Being used in literary works such obsolete clichés as aforesaid, hereby, therewith, hereinafternamed may produce humorous effect, may serve as a not very positive characteristic for a personage of a story.

Another way of creating ironic, satiric, or even sarcastic effect and atmosphere in a literary work is the use of words which are commonly called malapropisms. The name is due to Mrs. Malaprop, a character in Sheridan's comedy “The Rivals”. The name of this personage is in its turn derived from the French expression mal `a propos which is used about misapplied or out-of-place words and expressions. A malapropism is a word misplaced through the habit of using learned and sonorous language without understanding it (archaisms and obsolete words are also used in such a function). Wishing to tell her niece that she should forget about her penniless suitor, Mrs. Malaprop recommends her to illiterate(no such verb exists and the adjective illiterate is a synonym for uneducated) instead of to obliterate (meaning to efface entirely) the man from her memory. In the monologue expressing her views on feminine education she says: I would by no means wish a daughter of mine to be a progeny of learning; I don't think so much learning becomes a young woman; for instance, I would never let her meddle with Greek or Hebrew, or algebra, or simony, or fluxions, or paradoxes, or such inflammatory branches of learning … But, Sir Anthony, I would send her, at nine years old, to a boarding-school, in order to learn ingenuity and artifice. Then, sir, she should have a superciliousknowledge in accounts; and as she grew up, I would have her instructed in geometry, that she should know something of the contagious countries; - but above all, Sir Anthony< she should be mistress of orthodoxy,that she might not mis-spell and mis-pronounce words so shamefully as girls usually do; and likewise that she might reprehend the true meaning of what she is saying.

To explain every malapropism in the above passage would take much time and space. But the most vivid substitutions are: progenyfor prodigy; simony, fluxions andparadoxes are no doubt synonyms, flexions and paradigms; artifice means art; supercilious is superficial; geometry –geography; contagious –contiguous; orthodoxy –orthography and reprehend –comprehend. Such word confusion, exaggerating ignorance to provide amusement, has been a favourite stage-trick since the days of Shakespeare.

Malapropisms are the words which cannot be strictly singled out in respect to time axis as new, obsolete and archaic ones. Nevertheless, they often belong to scientific or historical notions that are specifically used and therefore may be misused in everyday speech, especially when people have a very vague knowledge of their true meaning. This is the basis for creation of the genuine images of a literary work.

Another group of words found in literary works is called foreignisms. Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words most frequently used in literary English. In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature.

There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfil a terminological function. Therefore, they still retain their foreign appearance. Foreignisms usually denote certain concepts which reflect an objective reality not familiar to English-speaking communities. There are no names for them in English and concepts of this type are generally given the names they have in the language of the people whose reality they reflect, e.g. solo, udarnik, geisha, Luftwaffe, concerto and so on.

One of the functions of foreignisms is to supply local colour. In order to depict local conditions of life, concrete facts and events, customs and habits, special care is taken to introduce into the passage such language elements as will reflect the environment. In this respect a most conspicuous role is played by the language chosen. In “Vanity Fair” Thackeray takes the reader to a small German town where a boy with a remarkable appetite is made the focus of attention. By introducing several German words into his narrative, the author gives an indirect description of the peculiarities of the German menu and the environment in general. The little boy, too, we observed, had a famous appetite, and consumed schinken, and kartoffeln, and cranberry jam … with a gallantry that did honour to his nation. The author does not require from the reader to understand the foreign words. It is the context that makes it clear that the words denote some kind of food. What is more important is the cultural component of the information conveyed. Usually foreign words are used to describe typical situations, most frequent for the culture described. Moreover, the number of foreignisms in a phrase is as a rule limited. This is one of the ways to make the reader get acquainted with a different culture. That is why native words serve as a background for comparison and at least approximate identification of the meaning of a foreignism.

Foreign words and expressions may sometimes be used to elevate the language. This is in some respect akin to the function of elevation of archaisms. Words which we do not quite understand sometimes have a peculiar charm. This magic quality in words has long been observed and made use of in various kinds of utterances, particularly in poetry and folklore.

Foreign words, being alien to the texture of the language in which the work is written, always arrest the attention of the reader. Sometimes the skillful use of one or two foreign words will be sufficient to create the impression of an utterance made in a foreign language. “Deutsche Soldaten – a little while ago, you received a sample of American strength.” (Stefan Heym, “The Crusaders”)

The same effect is sometimes achieved by the slight distortion of an English word, or a distortion of English grammar in such a way that the morphological aspect of the distortion will bear a resemblance to the morphology of the foreign tongue, e.g. “He lookat Miss Forsyte so funny sometimes. I tell him all my story; he so sympatisch.” (Galsworthy)

Another group of words that is used to characterize the personages through their speech or to give local colouring to the description belong to dialectal lexical units. Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries. They are only to be found in literary works. Usually the writers use dialectal words sparingly, introducing units which are understandable to the intelligent reader. Among dialectal words which are easily understood are: maister, weel, laird, naethingand the like. Dialectal words are confined in their use to a definite locality and most of the words deal with the everyday life of the country.

Besides dialectal words non-standard English contains the so-called vulgarisms. These are expletives and swear words which are of an abusive character, like damn, bloody, to hell, goddam and obscene words. Obscene words are known as four-letter words the use of which is banned in any form of intercourse as being indecent. Historians say that in Middle Ages and down into the 16^th century they were accepted in oral speech and after Caxton (the first English printer) even admitted to the printed page. All of these words are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Vulgarisms are often used in conversation out of habit, without any thought of what they mean, or in imitation of those who use them in order not to seem old-fashioned or prudish.

The function of expletives is almost the same as that of interjections: to express strong emotions, mainly annoyance, anger, excitement and so on. They are used in the speech of the characters only.

Vulgar words are not only coarse; they are rude and emotionally strongly charged. Like any manifestation of excess of feelings, they are not very discernible as to their logical meaning. Their use in literary works create bright images of the underworld, especially in the literary works dealing with social problems, the life of the criminals, beggars, very often immigrants who failed not find the proper status in the society.

Special attention proper names should be given. It is quite usual for the authors to mention the names of localities, the geographical names. The names of the countries, rivers, cities, towns and the like make the literary work sound realistic, make them close to life, create the idea of possible actual events that may happen in ordinary life. On the other hand, proper names may refer the reader to some known facts; describe the characters or the events comparing them with well-known historical, cultural, or mythological heroes. This is one of the methods to call on the reader's background knowledge, to make him think and apply his educative level to deduce the idea, the intention of the author to give prominence to the characters or events described. Thus the name of the French Riviera calls on the reader's knowledge of the famous resorts, on the places popular with a certain class of people. Sometimes the writers do not name the places directly. They just say that the events happened in the “town of N.” This is an example of generalization. In such a way the author makes not the place but the events more prominent. The direct mentioning of geographical places presupposes a certain characteristic of a usual circle of people, a certain layer of the society, while the generalized naming of a place gives the idea of unpredictable circumstances that can happen to everybody no matter what the person is, where one stays.

The groups of words that have been described make up the vocabulary of the language. All of them can be singled out or found in the English word-stock through dictionaries. In this respect they are relevant lexical units which do not belong to the sphere of literature only. But what is really important and noteworthy is their ability to bring to the fore the type of information required by the author for the creation of true images of a literary work. It is through different types of words that the tone, the atmosphere and the charm of literature is created and conveyed to the reader.