The Branch of Phonetics.
Date: 2015-10-07; view: 641.
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11) Sentence stress is the music of spoken English. Like word stress, sentence stress can help you to understand spoken English, especially when spoken fast.
Like word stress is accent on one syllable within a word then sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.
Most sentences have two types of word:
1) Content (words are the key words of a sentence. They are the important words that carry the meaning or sense). [nouns, adjectives, adverbs (quickly, loudly, never), verb, auxiliaries]
2) Structure (words are not very important words. They are small, simple words that make the sentence correct grammatically. They give the sentence its correct form or "structure").
[pronouns, prepositions(on,at), articles, conjunctive(and,but,cuz), auxiliary v. (do,be,have,can)]
If you remove the structure words from a sentence, you will probably still understand the sentence, but if you remove the content words - you will not understand the sentence. The sentence has no sense or meaning.
12) Assimilation is a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which one of the sounds becomes fully or partially similar to the adjoining sound.
Types of assimilation can be distinguished according to:
1) Direction
Progressive (if the previous sound effect on the next one) ex: books(s), pens(z): sandwich.
Regressive (if the next sound effect on the previous) ex: ten mice
Reciprocal or double(the articulation features of the preceding sound are changed under the influence of the following sound) ex: tree
2) Degree of completeness
Complete (in case the 2 adjoining sounds become alike or merge into one) ex: les[s s]hy, cupboard – p+b=b
Incomplete (the likeness of the adjoining sound is partial) ex: (the sonorant – w, l, r are partly devoiced by the voiceless p,t,k,s,f,th) sweet, place, try.
3) Degree of stability
Historical word (such changes which have taken place over a period of time) ex: orchard(ort+yard).
13) Intonation organizes a sentence, determines communicative types of sentences and clauses, divides sentences into intonation groups, gives prominence to words and phrases, expresses contrasts and attitudes.
The two main functions of intonation are: communicative and expressive.
14) Assimilation involves a change in the place of articulation to make a sound more similar to a neighboring sound. It is an extremely common phenomen in English, mainly affecting alveolar consonants.
- 16) The sonorants are partially devoiced when preceded by voiceless consonants (s,p,t,k,f,O)(place, climb,small). At word boundaries the sonorant (r,l,w) are slightly voiced (at last, at rest).
- Contracted forms of the verbs “is” and “has” may retain voice be devoiced depending on the preceding sonorants (That's right. Bob's gone out.)
17) Communicative sentences are distinguished so that we can understand: when we have something to ask or tell, prescribe or give advice.
Declarative sentences contains a certain message, a story about something. (Today a wonderful day. The sun is shining. The birds are singing.)
Declarative sentences are divided into affirmative and negative.
Imperativesentence gives anything from a command or order, to a request, direction, or instruction.
(You can't smoking here. Can I use your pen?)
Interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark. What do you want?
(Are you feeling well?)
Exclamatory sentence is released because of, and expresses strong emotion. Exclamative is ended with an exclamation mark. (I'll never finish this report in time!)
18) Consonants followed by the sonorant /w/ change their lip-position. They become lip-rounded in articipation /w/ - twinkle, swan.
19)Phoneme - the object of study of phonology.
Phoneme (Greek - "sound") - the minimum unit of the sound structure of language. Phoneme has no independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but is useful for distinguishing and identifying meaningful units of language (morphemes and words):
- the replacement of one phoneme to another get a different word (ten-pen);
- when you change the order of phonemes also get a different word (pit-tip);
- deleting phonemes also get a different word (p<l>ay- pay).
In most English accents there are about 24 consonantal phonemes and 20 vowel phonemes in the language, but only 26 letters.
20)In assimilation a sound is made more similar to a neighboring sound by a change in the manner of articulation.
23) Phonemic variants or allophones. Shcherba stated that in actual speech we utter a much greater variety of sounds than we are aware of, which are capable of distinguishing the meaning and the form of words. These sound types should be included into the classification of phonemes and studied as differentiatory units of the lang. The actually pronounced speech sounds are variants or allophones of phonemes. Allophones are realized in concrete words. They have phonetic similarity, at the same time they differ in some degree and are incapable of differentiating words, e.g. in speech we pronounce not the sound type [t] which is asperated, alveolar, forelingual, apical, occlusive, plosive, voiceless-fortis – according to the classificatory definition, but one of its variants, e.g. labialized in the word twice, dental in the word nineth, post-alveolar in try and so on.
Phonemic variants or allophones are very important for lang teaching, because they are pronaunced in actual speech and though they their mispronounciation doesn't influence the meaning, their misuse makes a person's speech sound as foreign.
The variants used in actual speech are called subsidiary. Susidiary allophones can be positional and combinatory. Posit alloph are used in certain positions traditionally, e.g. the Eng [l] is realized in actual speech as a positional alloph: it is clear in the initial position and dark (òâåðäûé) in terminal position, e.g. let and mill. Combinatory allophones appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of the phoneme upon another.
24)Syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound sequence one of which is heard to be more prominent then the other.
Syllable – is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example word ‘water' is composed of 2 syllables. [wa-ter]
Syllable as a rule consist of vowel and consonant sounds.
It's not difficult to count how many syllables – if we count how many times our jaw falling during we pronouncing the word.
The general structure of a syllable consist of 3 segments: onset, nucleus, coda.
Onset– which is made up of all of the consonants before the nucleus (one to three consonants beginning the syllable, such as [s] in sit or [bl] in blog)
Nucleus– which is the “core” of the syllable (always stress, it is syllable, it can be diphthong)
Coda - the everything after nucleus (texts – k s t ç – coda, computer – r-coda)
[ CAREFUL - /'kºøful/ onset – k, nucleus – ºø(open), onset – f, nucleus – u (closed), coda – l]
V — types of syllable called uncovered open, err
VC — types of syllable called uncovered closed, eat
CVC — types of syllable called covered closed,pit
CV — types of syllable called covered open,
25)Syntagma - is a elementary segment within a text. Such a segment can be a phonema, a word, a grammatical phrase or a sentence.
Syntagma - intonation and unity of meaning, which express in this context and in this situation and concept$ and may consist of one word, group of word and the whole sentence.
26) Assimilation.In the process of speech, that is in the process of transition from the articulatory work of one sound to the articulatory work of the neighbouring one, sounds are modified. These modifications can be conditioned:
a) by the complementary distribution of phonemes, e. g. the fully back /u:/ becomes back-advanced under the influence of the preceding mediolingual sonorant /j/ in the words tune, nude. In the word keen /k/ is not so back as its principal variant, it is advanced under (be influence of the fully front /i;/ which follows it:
b) by the contextual variations in which phonemes may occur at the junction of words, e. g. the alveolar phoneme /n/ in the combination in the is assimilated to the dental variant under the influence of /ð/ which
follows it;
c) by the style of speech: official or rapid colloquial. E. g. hot muffins 
may turn into 
Assimilation is a modification of a consonant under the influence of a neighbouring consonant. When a consonant is modified under the influence of an adjacent vowel or vice versa this phenomenon is called adaptation or accommodation, e. g. tune, keen, lea, cool.
When one of the neighbouring sounds is not realized in rapid or careless speech this process is called elision, e. g. a box of matches may be pronounced without [v].
Assimilation which occurs in everyday speech in the present-day pronunciation is called living. Assimilation which took place at an earlier stage in the history of the language is called historical.
Assimilation can be:
1progressive, when the first of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the second sound similar to itself, e. g. in desks the sounds /k/ make the plural inflection s similar to the voiceless /k/.
2regressive, when the second of the two sounds affected by assimilation makes the first sound similar to itself, e. g. in the combination at the the alveolar /t/ becomes dental, assimilated to the interdental / ð / which follows it;
3double, when the two adjacent sounds influence each other, e.g. twice /t/ is rounded under the influence of /w/ and /w/ is partly devoiced under (he influence of the voiceless /t/.
When the two neighbouring sounds arc affected by assimilation, it may influence: 1) the work of the vocal cords; 2) the active organ of speech; 3) the manner of noise production; 4) both: the place of articulation and the manner of noise production.
l)Assimilation affecting the work of the vocal cords is observed when one of the two adjacent ñîñåäíèé consonants; becomes voiced under the influence of the neighbouring voiced consonant, or voiceless — under the influence of the neighbouring voiceless consonant.
In the process of speech the sonorants /m, n, 1, r; j, w/ are partly devoiced before a vowel, preceded by the voiceless consonant phonemes /s, p, t, k/, e. g. plate, slowly, twice, ay. This assimilation is not observed in the most careful styles of speech.
2) The manner of noise production is affected by assimilation in cases of a) lateral plosion and b) loss of plosion or incomplete plosion. The lateral plosion takes place, when a plosive is followed by /1/. In this case the closure for the plosive is not released till the off-glide for the second [l]. Incomplete plosion takes place in the clusters a) of two similar plosives like /pp,pb, tt, td, kk, kg/, or b) of two plosives with different points of articulation like:/kt/,/dg/, /db/, /tb/. So there is only one explosion for the two plosives.
3) Assimilation affects the place of articulation and the manner of noise production when the plosive, alveolar /tl is followed by the post-alveolar /r/. For example, in the word trip alveolar 1t1 becomes post-alveolar and has a fricative release.
28) At first I have to say that there are 2 kinds of words in english:
1- simple words
2- complex words
Simple words are not composed of more than one grammatical unit.e.g:CARE
Complex words are composed of two or more grammatical units.e.g:CAREFUL,CAREFULLY
Complex words are of 2 major types:
A. words made from a basic word form(stem),with the addition of an affix and
B. compound words which are made of 2 or more independent English words.e.g.ARMCHAIR
Now lets check when an affix is added to a word,how the word stress is changed.three effects:
A)The affix itself reicives the primary stress.e.g.PERSON+ALITY=PERSONALITY
B)The word is streesed as if the affix were not there.e.g.PLEASANT & UNPLEASANT
C)The stress remains on the stem,not the suffix,but is shifted to a different syllable.e.g.MAGNET & MAGNETIC
29) Strong and weak syllables.
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Phonetics studies the sound system of the language, or segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure and intonation. So it is primarily concerned with the expression levelof the language.
Phonetics also deals with the content levelbecause only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech.
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