CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS ACCORDING TO THE POSITION OF THE TONGUE

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 1833.

1. According to the position of the bulk of the tongue (or the horizontal movement of the tongue) vowels are divided into five groups: front, front-retracted, central or mixed, back and back-advanced.

Front vowels are those in the production of which the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, forming a large empty space (resonance chamber) in the back part of the mouth. The English front vowels are /i:/, /e/,/ æ / and the nucleus of the diphthong /eə/.

There is only one front vowel in Ukrainian, it is /I/.

Front-retracted vowels are those in the articulation of which the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth, but somewhat retracted, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate. There is only one front-retracted monophthong in English, it is /i/. The nuclei of the diphthongs /ai/ and /au/ are also front-retracted.

The Ukrainian front-retracted vowels are /и/ and /e/.

Central or mixed vowels are those in the production of which the central part of the tongue is raised towards the juncture between the hard and soft palate. English central vowels are /ɜ:/, /ə/,/ʌ/ and the nucleus of the diphthong /ɜu/.

There are no central vowels in Ukrainian.

Back vowels are those in the production of which the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth while the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate, forming an empty space in the front part of the mouth. The English back vowels are /u:/, /ɔ:/, /ɒ/, and the nucleus of the diphthong /ɔɪ/.

There is only one back vowel in Ukrainian, it is /o/.

Back-advanced vowels are those in the production of which the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth, but somewhat advanced, while the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate. In pronouncing back-advanced vowels a large resonance chamber is formed in the front part of the mouth cavity. The English back-advanced vowels are /u/, /a:/.

There is only one back-advanced vowel in Ukrainian, it is /у/.

2.According to the height of the raised part of the tongue (or the vertical movement of the tongue) vowels are divided into three groups: close or highvowels,open or low and mid-open or mid vowels.

Close (high) vowels are those in the production of which the tongue comes close to the palate (the roof of the mouth). The air-passage between the tongue and the palate is rather narrow, but the air flows through the passage without causing audible friction. The English close or high vowels are /i:/, /i/, /u:/, /u/.

The Ukrainian close vowels are /i/, /и/, /у/.

Open (low) vowels are those which are produced when the raised part of the tongue is very low in the mouth and the air-passage is wide. The English open vowels are /æ/, /a:/, /ɒ/, /ʌ/ and the nuclei of /aɪ/, /aʊ/.

The only open vowel in Ukrainian is /а/.

Mid-open (mid) vowels are those in the production of which the tongue is raised halfway between the high and low positions, i.e. the tongue is in the position intermediate between those of open and close vowels. The English mid-open or mid, vowels are /e/, /ɜ:/, /ə/, /ɔ:/ and the nuclei of /eə/, / ɜu/.

The Ukrainian mid-vowels are /e/, /o/.

Each of these three main tongue-positions (high, mid and low) has two variations (varieties): narrow and broad.

This means that in pronouncing a vowel of a narrow variety of the same general tongue-position. For instance, the vowels / ɜ:/ and / ə / are both central and mid-open but in the production of /ɜ:/ the central part of the tongue is raised a little higher than in the production of /ə/; for this reason the vowel / ɜ:/ is defined as central, mid-open of the narrow variety, while the vowel /ə/ is defined as central, mid-open of the broad variety.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS ACCORDING TO THE POSITION OF THE LIPS

According to the lip position vowels may be rounded and unrounded (labialized and non-labialized).

Rounded vowels are those in the production of which the lips are more or less rounded and slightly protruded.

The English rounded vowels are / ɒ /, /ɔ:/, u:/, /u:/, and the nuclei of /ɜu/, / ɔɪ/.

The Ukrainian rounded vowels are /y/, /o/.

Unrounded vowels are produced when the lips are spread or neutral.

III. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS ACCORDING TO THEIR LENGTH

According to their length vowels may be long and short. And English long vowels are /i:/, /a:/, /ɔ:/,/u:/, /ɜ:/. The following English vowels may be described as short: /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ə/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, /u/.

There is no differentiation of Ukrainian vowel phonemes according to length.

IV. CLASSIFICATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS ACCORDING TO THE DEGREE OF TENSENESS

According to the degree of tenseness vowels are divided into tense and lax.

In pronouncing the English long vowels the organs of speech are more tense than in pronouncing short vowels. That is why the English long vowels are tense, and all the English short vowels are lax.

Ukrainian vowel phonemes are not differentiated according to their tenseness, but one and the same vowel is more tense in a stressed syllable than in an unstressed one.

ARTICULATION OF ENGLISH VOWELS

MONOPHTHONGS

In pronouncing the vowel /i:/ the tongue moves forward and upward. The front of the tongue is raised high in the direction of the hard palate but not so high as to cause the air stream to produce audible friction. During the articulation of the vowel the tongue slightly changes its position: the front of the tongue moves from a more open and retracted position to a closer and more advanced one as a result of which the vowel is diphthongized.

The lips are spread or neutral. The opening between the jaws is rather narrow.

Thus the vowel /i:/ may be defined as front, close (narrow variety), unrounded, diphthongized, long and tense.

Graphic notations:

e – in the open syllables: me, Peter

ee – need, feel, tree

ea – meat, read, sea

ie – field, niece, piece

ei – ceiling, seize, receive

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a tree, three leaves, a bee, a sheep, a fleet at sea; ice cream for tea;

Steven is greedy; he eats three pieces of cheese. Asleep, Steven dreams of Eve. He sees Eve fleeing from three beasts.

/i/

In pronouncing the vowel /i/ the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity, but slightly retracted. The front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, but not so high as for /i:/. The opening between the jaws is narrow. The lips are spread or neutral.

The vowel /i/ is short, and like all the other short vowels, it is lax.

The vowel /i/ may be defined as front-retracted, close (broad variety), unrounded, short and lax.

Graphic notations :

i, e, y, – in closed syllables: in, big, did, pretty, rhythm.

i, e, y, – in unstressed suffixes and prefixes: invent, begin, busy, very, spelling

a – in noun-forming suffixes –age, –ate: language, luggage, graduate

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

ink, a ship, a fish, a biscuit, a thin whistle, a big pig, a little kitten, a kitchen sink with dishes in it.

Which of the six thin women is a wicked witch?

Compare the two vowels: /i:/ and /i/.

A sheep, a ship, a bean, a bin, a meal, a mill, a lead, a lid. Jean likes Jim…but Jim doesn't like Jean. Sleepy Freda seeks size six slippers to fit her feet. Fish and chips are cheap and easy to eat.

/e/

In pronouncing the vowel /e/ the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. The front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, but a little less than for the /i/– vowel. The lips are spread. The opening between the jaws is medium. The vowel /e/ is short and lax.

It may be defined as front, mid-open (narrow variety), unrounded, short and lax.

Graphic notations:

e – in closed syllables; red, let, spend.

ea – head, bread, leather

a – many, any, ate

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

A leg, a tent, a penny, a letter, a wren's nest, seven pets, a treasure chest, ten well-dressed men, a wedding-dress. Eleven hens with twelve eggs in ten nests.

/æ/

The vowel /æ/ is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front part of the mouth cavity. The tongue is rather low in the mouth. The front of the tongue is slightly raised, but not so high as for /e/.The lip position is neutral. The opening between the jaws is wide.

The vowel may be defined as front, open (broad variety), unrounded, short.

Graphic notations:

a – in closed syllables: pan, can, family

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a hand, a map, a stamp, a flag, a tank, a jazz band, a fat man clapping his hands; a black cat catching a fat rat.

Anne has plaits and black slacks. Harry has a hacking jacket. Harry and Anne are standing hand-in-hand.

Compare the two sounds : /e/, / æ /.

a pet, a pat, one man, many men, a net, a gnat, pedaling, paddling.

Ted has Dad's at on his head, jack has a check cap in his hand, Jack's Czech friend Franz is very expansive. Franz's French friend is very expensive.

/a:/

The vowel /a:/ is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity. The back of the tongue is only slightly raised. In fact it is in the lowest position in the mouth. The lips are neutral. The opening between the jaws is fairly wide.

The vowel /a:/ is defined as back-advanced, open (broad variety), unrounded, long and tense.

Graphic notations:

a – in stressed syllables: car, star, carpet.

a + two consonants (except ll): grass, half, after, bath.

au – aunt, laugh.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a heart, a harp, a bard, an arm, a castle, a palm, a carpet, a fast car, a farm-cart; a dark barn in a large farm-yard. Mark can't park his car in the barn because of a calf and a cart blocking the farm-yard.

/ ɒ /

In pronouncing / ɒ / the tongue is held in a position which is further back than of /a:/. The lips are slightly rounded. The opening between jaws is wide.

This vowel may be defined as back, open (broad variety), slightly rounded, short and lax.

Graphic notations:

o – in closed syllables: on, not, stop, office, doctor.

a – want, quality

au – sausage, Austria.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a dog, a fog, a blot, a shop, a lot of knots; a dog squatting on a rotten log. John, Olive. John is strong, Olive is a shopper. Olive watches John load a locked strong-box on a yacht in a lock at the docks.

Mind the difference between the two vowels: /a:/ and / ɒ /

a darn, a don, a tart, a tot, a shark, a shock, a Rajah, Roger. This cross-country runner is last. This cross-country runner is lost.

/ɔ:/

The vowel /ɔ:/ is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the back part on the mouth cavity. The back of the back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate, higher than for / ɒ /. The lips are rounded and slightly protruded to form an opening which is much smaller than for / ɒ /. The opening between the jaws is medium.

The vowel /ɔ:/ may be defined as fully back, mid-open (broad variety), rounded, long and tense.

Graphic notations:

or – in stressed syllables: corn, born, force.

aw – law, drawn, jaw.

ou – bought, course.

au – audible, fault, daughter, caught.

a – all, chalk, water, quarter, war.

Ore, oor, oar, our – ore, door, board, four, court.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a thought, a talk, a yawn, a call, a walk, a stormy dawn. Maud, Paul. Maud is short. Paul is short. Maud is walking on the lawn. Paul is crawling along a wall. Maud warns Paul “You'll fall!” “Not at all,” reports Paul.

Mind the difference between two vowels: / ɔ:/ and / ɒ/

a cork, a cock, a dawn, a don, a sport, a spot, a corset, to cosset, a warm hot water bottle, a dog's paw.

/u:/

In pronouncing the English /u:/ the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity. The back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the soft palate higher than for /u/, and is more retracted. It is long and tense. During the pronunciation of /u:/ the tongue moves from a more advanced and open position to a closer and more retracted position as the result of which the vowel is diphthongized. At the beginning of /u:/ the lips are fairly rounded. Towards the end the lips are still more rounded. The opening between the jaws is narrower than for the phoneme /u/.

The vowel /u:/ may be defined as back, close (narrow variety), diphthongized, rounded, long, tense.

Graphic notation:

oo – not before k: soon, school, boot.

u – in open syllable s: rule, June, music.

o – to, lose.

Ou – wound, group, soup, through.

ew, ue, ui, oe – news, crew, due, suit, shoe.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a new moon, a rude, uncouth youth, a brute, a goose, a stool, two new shoes, a few used boots. Hugh, Sue. Hugh's tooth is loose. Sue is beautiful. Hugh shoots a moose and loses his loose tooth. Sue is foolish and stupid at school as a rule.

/u/

The vowel /u/ is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth, but somewhat advanced. The back of the tongue is raised in the direction of the front part of the soft palate, higher than for / ɔ:/. The lips are slightly rounded.

It may be defined as back-advanced, close (broad variety), slightly rounded, short and lax.

Graphic notations:

oo – mostly before k: book, look, good, room, wool, foot.

u – put, bush, full.

o – wolf, woman.

ou – would, could.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a butcher, a cook, a bull, a rook, a wood. The cook looks at her cookery-book. She puts some sugar in the pudding.

Mind the difference between the two vowels: /u/ and /u:/.

The pudding looks good. Look at Luke, pulling a poor fool out of the pool in the wood. This foolish, bookish Duke is too full of good food to move a foot.

/ʌ/

The vowel /ʌ/ is pronounced with the central part of the tongue raised in the direction of the juncture of the hard and soft palate. The lips are spread. The opening between the jaws is not so wide as for /a:/.

It may be defined as central, open (narrow variety), unrounded, short and lax.

Graphic notations:

u – in closed syllables: must, but, under.

o – in closed syllables: son, month, brother.

ou – country, young.

oo – flood.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

A puff, a cup, a glove, a gun, a jump, a duck, a country cousin, a lovely crusty battered bun for supper. Cuthbert puts some mustard in his mother's custard. A thump. Cuthbert's young brother wonders why mother doesn't love her other son.

Compare the two vowels: / æ /, /ʌ/.

a hat, a hut, a battler, a butler, a stamp, a stump, a banker, a bunker.

These windows were shattered. These windows were shuttered. Mashed potatoes with butter. Mashed potatoes with batter.

Mind the difference between the two vowels : /a:/ and / ʌ /

a park, a puck: a carp, a cup; a larva, a lover; a barking dog, a bucking horse.

Compare the two vowels : / ʌ / and / ɒ /:

a dun, a don; a hug, a hog; a suck, a sock; a buddy, a body.

The zoologist wonders about bugs. The botanist wanders about bogs.

/ɜ:/

In pronouncing the vowel /ɜ:/ the tongue is almost flat. The central part of the tongue is raised almost as high as for /e/. The lips are spread or neutral. The opening between the jaws is narrow.

The vowel /ɜ:/ may be defined as central, mid-open (narrow variety) unrounded, long and tense.

Graphic notations:

ir, ur, er, yr – under stress: firm, turn, person, myrtle.

ear – earn, pearl, heard.

wor – worm, worse.

our – journey, courtesy.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

Myrtle, her purse, her curl, her jersey, her skirt, a dirty turtle. An early bird with a squirming earth-worm.

A serpent lurking amid the ferns. Pearl. Pearl is a circus girl. An earl gave Pearl a fur and a circlet of pearls for her thirty-first birthday.

/ə/

The vowel /ə/ is pronounced with the central part of the tongue raised a little, but less than for /ɜ:/. The lips are neutral. The opening between the jaws is narrow.

The vowel /ə/ may be defined as central, mid-open (broad variety), unrounded, short and lax. The vowel /ə/ only occurs in unstressed positions. There is no vowel in Ukrainian that fully coincides in quality with the English neutral vowel.

Graphic notations:

It is represented by almost any vowel letter or combination of vowel letters.

i, a, e, o, u – possible, canal, president, custom, suggest.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a balloon, a banana, a cactus, a cormorant, an abacus, a fashionable photographer, an adventurous professor; an amateur astrologer; a professional astronomer.

Alderman Sir Edward Anderson is a prosperous government official at the Treasury. The comfortable apartment of Sir Edward Anderson at Aldeburgh.

DIPHTHONGS

The diphthong /ei/

The diphthong /ei/ is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front part of the mouth cavity. During the pronunciation of the nucleus of this diphthong the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, as for /ei/. Thus the nucleus of the diphthong /ei/ is practically the same as the vowel /e/, that is front, mid-open, unrounded of the narrow variety. After completing the nucleus the front of the tongue glides still higher, moving in the direction of /i/ though the actual formation of /i/ is not accomplished. During the pronunciation of both the nucleus and the glide the lips are slightly spread. The opening between the jaws is rather narrow, a little wider for the nucleus than for the glide.

Graphic notations:

a – in open syllables: name, safe

ei, ey – under the stress: vein, they, grey

ai – before a consonant: sail, main

ay - under the stress : day, play

ea – great, break

eigh – eight, neighbour.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a space-ship, a baby whale, a sailor, a mate, a great wave, daybreak, a grey rainy day. A train waiting at a railway station. James bakes eight cakes. June plays with trains and planes. James. Jane. James takes a cake from Jane's plate.

The diphthong /ai/

The diphthong /ai/ is pronounced with the bulk of the tongue in the front of the mouth cavity, but slightly retracted. During the pronunciation of the nucleus of the diphthong the front of the tongue is slightly raised but lower than for / æ /. Thus the nucleus may be defined as front-retracted, open, unrounded of the broad variety. During the glide the front of the tongue moves higher, in the direction of /i/, but without reaching it. The glide of /ai/ sounds, in fact, like a weak /e/.

The opening between the jaws is rather wide for the nucleus and much narrower for the glide.

Graphic notations:

i, y – in open syllables: time, my, type.

igh – high, light, might.

ie,ye – tie, rye, dye.

i+ nd – kind, find.

i+ld – child, mild.

Ei – neither, height.

ign – sign.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

An eye, a wide smile, a stile, a bicycle, a child, a white kite flying high in the sky; five white mice. Clive. Dinah Clive climbs high spires at night. Dinah is quite nice, but frightfully shy. Clive decides to invite Dinah to dine. He tries to find a fine white wine.

Compare:

ei / ai

to lay, to lie, a pain, a pine, hate, height, the lake that I like. David baits his hook and a whiting bites it.

ei / e

a taste, a test, a sailor, a seller, they raced, I rest. David failed his exam. So he felled the examiner. Jane sails boats. Jean sells boots.

The diphthong / ɔi /

During the pronunciation of the nucleus of the diphthong / ɔi / the bulk of the tongue is slightly raised, though it is not so low as for the vowel / ɒ /. The lips are slightly rounded. Thus the nucleus may be defined as back, open, slightly rounded of the narrow variety.

In the pronunciation of the glide the tongue moves forward and upward, that is in the direction of the position for /i/, without actually reaching it. The glide sounds like a weak /e/. The opening between the jaws is wide for the nucleus and much narrower for the glide.

Graphic notations:

oi, oy – coin, oil, noise, boy, enjoy.

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

Mr. Hoyle, a boy; Mr. Hoyle toils with the soil. The boy is adroit with his quoit. A choice, moist oyster. A loyal royalist. Roy, Joyce. Roy is a noisy boy. Joyce is spoilt and coy. Joyce enjoys annoying Roy. Roy destroys Joyce's choicest toys.

Compare: ɔi / ai

Good boys, goodbyes, a point, a pint, a foil, a file. Joyce walks off with poise. Giles walks off with pies.

The diphthong /au/

The nucleus is pronounced with the bulk of the mouth, but slightly retracted. The front of the tongue is slightly raised. Thus the nucleus may be defined as front-retracted, open, unrounded, of the broad variety. In pronouncing the glide the tongue moves higher and backward, that is in the direction of /u/, without actually reaching its position. As a result the glide of /au/ often sounds like a weak /o/. The opening between the jaws is wide for the nucleus and much narrower for the glide.

Graphic notations:

ou – house, sound, round

ow – how, town

ough – bough, plough

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

A cow, a scowl, a cloud, a scout, a plough, a rout. This owl has found a brown mouse on the ground. A hound with a grouse in its mouth. Proud. Cowed. Mountains and fountains. A round house. The loud shouts and howls of the crowd of louts from the town drown the sound of the vows of the devout on the mound.

The diphthong /ɜu /

During the pronunciation of the nucleus the central part of the tongue is in the /ɜ:/ position. The nucleus of /ɜu/ is mixed, mid-open, unrounded of the narrow variety. During the glide the back of the tongue rises higher, moving in the direction of /u/. The glide is rather distinct in stressed syllables and sounds like the vowel /u/.

The lips are neutral at the beginning of the diphthong but during the glide they are almost as much rounded as for /u/.

Graphic notations:

o – in open syllables: note, go, open, also.

oa + consonant – boat, road, load.

ow – snow, low, fellow.

ou – shoulder, though, boulder.

o + ld – told, cold

o+ll – roll, poll

o + st – most, post

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

a goat, a cone, a rose, a note, an overcoat, poached eggs on toast, an old coastal boat. Joan! Joe. Joan is combing her golden hair. Joe has a noble, Roman nose. Joe and Joan go for a stroll. Joe shows Joan his roses. Joan won't go home alone, so Joe goes home with Joan.

Compare:

ɜu/ɔ:

a phone, a faun, a load, a lord, a stoker, a stalker. John has bought his adoring daughter Joan a motor-boat.

ɜu/ɜ:

coals, curls, a joke, a jerk, floating, flirting

ɜu/u:

a hope, a hoop, a roller, a roller, a goal, a goal, a ghoul

ɜu/au

a bow, a bow, a crone, a crown, a foal, a fowl, a cold figure.

The diphthong /iə /

During the pronunciation of the nucleus the bulk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth cavity. The front of the tongue is raised to the position of the vowel /i/.

Thus the nucleus of /iə/ is front-retracted, close, unrounded of the broad variety. In pronouncing the glide the tongue moves back and down towards /ə/, the articulation of which is fully accomplished. When the diphthong / iə / occurs in an open syllable and is followed by a pause, the glide sounds like the vowel / ʌ /. The lips are neutral.

Graphic notations:

ere – here, sincere

eer – deer, pioneer

ear – clear, near, tear

ier – fierce, pierce

ea – idea, real

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

Seer, a spear, fear, a deer, a tear, a theatre, a dreary peer sneers in the grand tier. At the rear they near the peer and jeer. But here, clearly the cheers for the hero are really fierce. The weary hero is nearly in tears.

The diphthong / ɛə /

During the pronunciation of the nucleus the balk of the tongue is in the front part of the mouth. The front of the tongue is mid-way between the position for /e/ and /æ/, the nucleus of /ɛə / is more open than the vowel /e/. The lips are spread and neutral. Thus the nucleus of /ɛə / may be defined as front, mid-open, unrounded of the broad variety.

In pronouncing the glide the bulk of the tongue moves to the position for /ə/. When the diphthong occurs in a word-final position, the glide may sound like / ʌ /.

Graphic notations:

are – stare, care, parents.

air – pair, stairs, affair

ear – bear, wear, tear

ere – there, where

LISTEN AND REPEAT:

tear, swear, share, despair, various pairs of things to wear. Mary. Mary is scared of fairies in the dairy. Sarah. Sarah has fair hair. Pair-haired Sarah stares warily at the hairy bear glaring from his lair.

The diphthong /uə/

During the pronunciation of the nucleus the bulk of the tongue is in the back part of the mouth cavity, but slightly advanced. The back of the tongue is raised so high as for the vowel /u/.

Thus the nucleus of /uə/ may be defined as back-advanced, close, slightly rounded of the broad variety. In pronouncing the glide the tongue moves down to the position of the vowel which is actually pronounced.

Graphic notations:

oor – poor, moor

ur (e)- jury, rural, plural, cure, pure.

The Classification of English Consonant Phonemes

Consonants are usually classified according to the following principles:

I. According to the active organs of speech which form the obstruction and according to the place of obstruction.

II. According to the manner of the production of noise and according to the type of obstruction.

III. According to the work of the vocal cords.

IV. According to the position of the soft palate.

I. The Classification of Consonants According to the Active Organs of Speech and the Place Of Obstruction

According to the active organs of speech consonants are divided into the following groups:1. labial, 2.lingual, 3.glottal.

1. Labial Consonants. In pronouncing labial consonants the obstruction is formed by the lips. Labial consonants are divided into bilabial and labio-dental.

In articulating bilabial consonants the obstruction is formed by the two lips being brought together.

The English bilabial consonants are : /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/.

The Ukrainian bilabial consonants are: /П/, /Б/, /М/.

In articulating labio-dental consonants the obstruction is formed by the lower lip being pressed against the upper teeth.

The English labio-dental consonants are: /f/, /v/.

The Ukrainian labio-dental consonants are: /Ф/, /В/.

2. Lingual Consonants. In pronouncing lingual consonants the obstruction is formed by the tongue. Lingual consonants are divided into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.

1.) In articulating forelingual consonants the obstruction is formed by the tip or the blade of the tongue.

The English forelingual consonants are: / θ /, / ð /, /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, / ʃ /, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /n/, /l/, /r/.

The Ukrainian forelingual consonants are: /Т/, /Т׳/, /Д /, /Д׳/, /Н/, /Н׳/, /С/, /С׳/, /З/, /З׳/, /Л/, /Л׳/, /Ц/, /Ц׳/, /Ш/, /Ш׳/, /Ж /, /Ж ׳/, /Ч/, /ДЖ/, /ДЖ׳/, /ДЗ/, /ДЗ׳/, /P/, /P׳/.

According to the passive organ of speech, that is, to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants are subdivided into dental and alveolar.

In articulating forelingual dental consonants the obstruction is formed by the tip of the tongue and the teeth. The English dental consonants are: / θ /, / ð /.

The Ukrainian dental consonants: /Т/, /Д/, /Н/, /С/, /З/, /Л/.

Alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the teeth-ridge.

The English alveolar consonants are : /t/, /d/, /n/, /l/, /s/, /z/.

The Ukrainian alveolar consonants are: /P/, /P׳/.

Besides alveolar proper consonants there are also palate-alveolar and post-alveolar consonants.

Palato-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip and the blade of the tongue against the teeth-ridge, while the front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate.

The English palate-alveolar consonants are: /ʃ/, / ʒ /, /tʃ/, /dʒ /.

The Ukrainian palate-alveolar consonants are: /Ш/, /Ж/, /Ч/, /ДЖ/.

Post-alveolar consonants are articulated by the tip of the tongue against the back part of the teeth-ridge, as in the case of the English /r/.

2.) Mediolingual consonants are articulated by the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, as in the case of the English consonants /j/ and the Ukrainian consonant //.

3.) Backlingual consonants are articulated by the back of the tongue against the soft palate.

The English backlingual consonants are: /K /, /g/, /ŋ/.

The Ukrainian backlingual consonants are: /K/, /Г/, /X/.

3. Glottal consonants. Glottal consonants are articulated in the glottis, as in the case of the English /h/.

II. The Classification of Consonants According to the Manner of the Production of Noise and According to the Type of Obstruction

According to this principle consonants are divided into 1. occlusive; 2. constrictive; 3. Occlusive-constrictive consonants.

1. Occlusive Consonants. In articulating occlusive consonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction. Occlusive consonants are subdivided into plosives (or stops) and occlusive(or nasal) sonorants.

In pronouncing plosive consonants the articulating organs form a complete obstruction which is suddenly broken by the pressure of the air exhaled from the lungs and a kind of explosion, called plosion, is heard.

The English plosive consonants are: /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/.

The Ukrainian plosive consonants are: /П/, /Б/, /Т/, /Д/, /К/, /Г/.

In articulating occlusive (nasal) sonorants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction. The air-passage through the mouth is blocked, the soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nasal cavity.

The English occlusive sonorants are: /m/, /n/, / ŋ /.

The Ukrainian occlusive sonorants are: /M/, /M׳/, /H/, /H׳/.

2. Constrictive Consonants. In articulating constrictive consonants the active organs of speech do not block the air-passage completely but form a narrowing of the air-passage. Constrictive consonants are divided into fricative consonants and constrictivesonorants.

In articulating fricative consonants the active organs of speech form a narrowing through which the air passes with audible friction.

The English fricative consonants are: /f/, /v/, / θ /, / ð /, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, / ʒ /, /h/.

The Ukrainian fricative consonants are: /С/, /З/, /Х/, /Г/, /Щ/, /Ж/, /Ф, /В/. In articulating constrictive sonorants the active organs of speech form an obstruction or a narrowing of the air-passage wide enough for the air to pass through without producing audible friction. Constrictive sonorants may be medial and lateral.

Medial sonorants are those in the production of which the sides of the tongue are raised and the air escapes along the central line of the tongue, as in the case of the English /w/, /r/, /j/, and the Ukrainian /i:/.

Lateral sonorants are those in the production of which the tip of the tongue is pressed against the teeth-ridge and the air escapes along the sides of the tongue, as in the case of the English /l/, and the Ukrainian /Л/, /Л׳/.

3. Occlusive-Constrictive Consonants. In articulating occlusive-constrictive consonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction at first and then they are slowly released forming a narrow air-passage. The air, blocked at first by the complete obstruction, then escapes producing audible friction. Occlusive-constrictive consonants are also called affricates.

The English occlusive-constrictive consonants (or affricatives) are: /tʃ/, /dʒ /.

The Ukrainian affricatives are: /Ц/,/Ц׳/, /Ч/, /ДЗ/, /ДЗ׳/, /ДЖ/, /ДЖ׳/.

III. The Classification of Consonants according to the Work of the Vocal Cords

According to this principle consonants are divided into two groups – voiceless and voiced.

Voiceless consonants are those in the production of which the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate.

The English voiceless consonants are: /p/, /t/, /k/, /f/, / θ /, /s/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /h/.

The Ukrainian voiceless consonants are: /П/, /Ф/, /Т/, /Т׳/, /С/, /С׳/, /Ц/, /Ц׳/, /Ч/, /Ш/, /Ш׳/, /К/, /Х/.

Voiced consonants are sounds in the production of which the vocal cords are brought close together and vibrate.

The English voiced consonants are: /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /ð/, /z/, / ʒ /, / dʒ /, /m/, /n/, /w/, /l/, /r/, /j/.

The Ukrainian voiced consonants are: /Б/, /М/, /М׳/, /В/, /Д/, /Д׳/, /Н/, /Н׳/, /ДЗ/, /ДЗ׳/, /З/, /З׳/, /ДЖ/, /ДЖ׳/, /Ж/, /Ж׳/, /Р/, /Р׳/, /Л/, /Л׳/, /Г/.

According to the force of articulation consonants are divided into relatively strong, or fortis and relatively weak, or lenis. English voiced consonants are lenis. English voiceless consonants are fortis. They are pronounced with greater muscular tension and a stronger breath force.

IV. The Classification of consonants According to the position of the Soft Palate.

According to this principle consonants are divided into two groups : oral and nasal.

Oral consonants are sounds in the production of which the soft palate is raised and the air passes only through the mouth cavity as in the case of English /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/, / θ /, / ð /, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, / ʒ /, /h/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/, /w/, /l/, /r/, /j/, and the Ukrainian /П/, /Б/, /Т/, /Т׳/, /Д /, /Д׳ /, /К/, /Г/, /В/, /С/, /С׳/, /З/, /З׳/, /Ш/, /Ш׳/, / Ж/, /Ж׳/, /Ч/, /Ц/, /Ц׳/, / ДЖ/, /ДЖ׳/, /ДЗ/, /ДЗ׳/, /Л/, /Л׳/, /Р/, /Р׳/.

Nasal consonants are sounds in the production of which the soft palate is lowered, and the air passes out through the nasal cavity as in the case of the English /m/, /n/, / ŋ /, and the Ukrainian /М/, /М׳/, /Н/, /Н׳/.

ENGLISH CONSONANT PHONEMES IN DETAIL

Phonemes /p/, /b/.

In pronouncing the English consonants /p/ and /b/ a complete obstruction is formed by the lips which are slightly spread and pressed together. The air-passage through the mouth cavity is completely blocked for a short time. Then the tension in the place of obstruction is released. Under the pressure from the lungs the air breaks the obstruction and escapes with a kind of plosion. The soft palate is raised and the air passes through the mouth cavity.

In pronouncing the English /p/ the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of the English /b/ they are drawn together and vibrate.

The English /p/ is a bilabial plosive voiceless consonant phoneme.

The English /b/ may be defined as a bilabial plosive voiced consonant phoneme.

Graphic notations:

p – cap, port

pp – apple, supper

Repeat these words starting with /p/:

Pea peek peal

pill pit pin

paid paste pane

pet peck pen

pad pat pack

Here are some words with /p/ in the medial position. Notice that there is little or no aspiration:

Happy rapid hoping

Sloppy vapour soupy

Ripen piper supper

Now repeat these words ending with /p/:

hoop loop coop

rope dope soap

cop stop mop

type gripe ripe

cup pup sup

Repeat these sentences:

Peggy ripped her pink pinafore by leaping up the steps. Patrick pointed at the powder that Patsy was mopping up. In his pursuit of peace, he appeared to pardon people on pot.

Graphic notations:

b – baby, cab

bb – bobby, rubber

Repeat these words starting with /b/:

Bathe bait bay

Best Ben bed

Been beef beam

Bite bind bile

Book boot boor

Now repeat these words with /b/ in the medial position:

Robber blatter rubber

Chubby shabby hobby

Fibbing probing wobbing

Ruby cabby bribery

Repeat these words ending with /b/:

Fib rib nib

Jab scab dab

Cub grub rub

Lobe probe robe

Knob sob job

Repeat some short phrases:

a blue bottle cops and robbers

bear berries a boom town

a rubber ball the bubble burst

Repeat these sentences:

Betty bought a beautiful bright blue blouse. Barbara dabbed boiled berries on her biscuits. The batter banged his bat against the ball. The clock in the big brick building went Bong Bong.

Boyd boasted about the boys on the ball team.

Phoneme /m/

In pronouncing the English /m/ the lips are spread, tense and pressed together, forming a complete obstruction to the flow of the air through the mouth cavity. The soft palate is lowered. The air passes out through the nasal cavity. The vocal cords are drawn near together and vibrate. The English /m/ is a bilabial occlusive nasal sonorant.

Graphic notations:

m –merry, time

mm – common, dummy

mn – autumn, hymn

Repeat these words starting with /m/:

mill mix miss

men mesh met

mice mile mine

mop moth mock

much mud mull

Repeat these words with /m/ in the medial position:

famous blaming tamer

steamer stemming Sammy

Timmy similar famished

coming plumber tummy

roomy gloomy blooming

Repeat these words ending with /m/:

beam theme gleam

stem phlegm them

fame lame shame

ham jam lamb

comb dome roam

Repeat some short phrases:

many mansions make merry

madman mad money

mix and match name the game

Repeat these sentences:

The mob massed for a meeting in the middle of the town.

Tim blamed the groom because the mare missed the mile race.

Phoneme /w/

In pronouncing the English /w/ the lips are tense, rounded and slightly protruded, forming a rounded narrowing (the primary focus) while the back of the tongue is raised towards the soft palate, forming a back secondary focus.

The sides of the tongue are raised, the air-passage is open along the central part of the tongue. The soft palate is raised. The air passes through the rounded narrowing between the lips without any audible friction. As the air-passage is rather wide, in the articulation of this sound voice prevails over noise.

The vocal cords are drawn near together and vibrate.

From this initial position of the tongue and the lips immediately glide into the position necessary for the production of the following vowel.

The English/w/ is a bilabial constrictive medial sonorant with a back secondary focus.

/w/ is often called a semi-vowel because, while it functions as a consonant, it consists of a combination of two vowels in sound. To form it, push the lips forward and say /u/; then, let the tongue and a lower lip drop and say /ə/. When you allow the first sound to glide into the second sound, /w/ is produced.

Graphic notations:

w – water, well

wh – wheel, when

/u / after g or q – language, square

Repeat these words starting with /w/:

week weed we're

with will wind

wage waif ways

web well west

wax wagon word

woo wool wood

woke woven woe

wad wash wall

wise wipe wide

one was worry

Repeat these sentences:

Wesley worries about his wife's work.

I wish you wouldn't waste the fire wood.

Walter wound his watch when he woke.

The waif wailed and wept as he waited in the wind.

The candle will burn well if the wick is trimmed.

One of the spider webs woven strongly and well.

Phoneme /f/, /v/.

In pronouncing the English phonemes /f/, /v/ the lower lip is raised to the upper teeth, forming a flat narrowing. The soft palate is raised and the air passes through the narrowing producing audible friction.

In the production of /f/ the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of /v/ they are drawn near together and vibrate.

Thus the English /f/ may be defined as a labio-dental constrictive fricative voiceless consonant phoneme.

Graphic notations:

f – beef, future

ff – traffic, office

ph – alphabet, photo

gh – laugh, enough

Repeat these words starting with /f/:

Fame phrase faith

Fad fan fat

Food foot fool

Foe phone foal

fall fawn far

Repeat these words with /f/ in the medial position:

riffle piffle sniffle

duffle waffle snaffle

toffee coffee Mafia

wafer safer stiffer

offing coughing puffing

Repeat these words ending with /f/:

thief chief brief

if cliff tiff

half graph chaff

buff cuff enough

life wife rife

Repeat these sentences:

The fog made him cough and sniffle.

Flora is fasting – coffee and wafers for breakfast.

Fanny laughed at the calf frolicking in the field.

Jeff's father fought the foe for four years.

The chef phoned for fresh fowls and half a beef steer.

Graphic notations:

v –very, devote

ph – nephew, Stephen.

Repeat these words starting with /v/:

vest vent vex

van vat valve

void voice voile

verse verbe verge

vim vivid villa

Repeat these words with /v/ in the medial position:

Mervin Melvin Vivian

raven even craven

never sever several

havoc flavour saviour

drivel navel devil

Repeat these words ending with/v/:

leave Steve heave

wave save pave

chive alive drive

love dove

rove mauve wove

Here are some short phrases:

vim and vigour visiting VIP's

live and let live haves and have-nots

vanilla flavour venomous vipers

Repeat these sentences:

Victor divided his vineyard very evenly.

They've invested in a villa in a village.

Merve devised a verse about verbs and vowels.

Vera will wear mauve velvet or violet voile.

The volume of lava played havoc in the vicinity of the volcano.

Phonemes /t/, /d/.

In pronouncing the English /t/, /d/ the tip of the tongue touches the alveoli forming a complete obstruction.

The air-passage through the mouth cavity is blocked for a short time.

Then the tension in the place of obstruction is released. Under the pressure from the lungs the air breaks the obstruction and escapes with a kind of plosion. The soft palate is raised.

In the production of /t/ the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of /d/ they are drawn near together and vibrate.

The English /t/ is a forelingual apical alveolar occlusive (plosive) voiceless consonant phoneme.

The English /t/ is pronounced with aspiration in a stressed syllable, when followed by a vowel and not preceded by /s/.

The English /d/ is a forelingual apical alveolar occlusive (plosive) voiced consonant phoneme.

Graphic notations:

t – text, cat

tt – Betty, letter

ed after voiceless consonants – looked, stopped

th in proper names – Thames, Thomas

Repeat these words with /t/ in the initial position:

team teeth teal

tame take tape

tax tap tack

tile tight tire

toy toys

Here are some words with /t/ in the medial position:

litter bitter sitting

hooter footing tooted

writing lightest fighter

potter dotted hottest

dirty Myrtle hurting

Repeat these sentences:

Butter tarts will titillate your taste buds.

Two capital cities are Toronto and Ottawa.

The poet wrote about twinkling stars in the bright sky.

Toby knitted winter sweaters and mittens for tiny tots.

Tilly told a terrible tale about toppling towers.

Graphic notations:

d – dear, sad

dd – middle, Teddy

ed after vowels and voiced consonants – played, turned.

Repeat these words with /i/ in the initial position:

deem dear deep

dice dye dike

door dome dose

dale Dane dare

dip dig dim

Repeat these words with /d/ in the medial position:

loading coded modal

Roddy body toddy

radar hooded mody

loudest prouder rowdy

reader medial leader

These words have /d/ in the final position:

bead need speed

mad sad had

led red said

kid did lid

toyed Boyd Lloyd

Repeat these sentences:

Do as you would be done by.

The child dabbled in the dirty puddle.

The loud sound echoed down the dale.

Doris' donkey did as it was told.

The gong went Ding Dong.

Devil's food cake is dark and delicious.

Phoneme /n/

In pronouncing the English /n/ the tip of the tongue touches the alveoli, forming a complete obstruction. The soft palate is lowered and the air passes out through the nasal cavity.

The vocal cords are drawn near together and vibrate.

Thus /n/ may be defined as a forelingual apical alveolar occlusive (nasal) sonorant.

Graphic notations:

n – never, send

nn – Ann, penny

en, on – forgotten, reason

gn – reign, sign

kn – knife, know

pn – pneumonia, pneumatic

Here are some words which start with /n/:

kneel niece knees

nave nape nail

now noun noise

knife nine Nile

nob notch gnaw

Repeat these words with /n/ in the medial position:

manner banner tanner

funny money honey

spinner winner skinny

many penny Benny

bony loner bonny

Repeat these words ending with /n/:

sin fin thin

cane gain vain

man ran fan

loon soon rune

fawn gone lawn

Repeat these sentences:

A penny saved is a penny earned.

Nell needs money for buns and honey.

Nora has seen that funny film many times.

The bony gunner knelt near his gun in the noonday sun.

The lone runner ran nineteen miles in ninety-nine minutes.

Ben's niece and nephew climbed to the notch in the nut tree.

Phonemes /s/, /z/

In pronouncing the English /s/, /z/ the tip and the blade of the tongue are raised towards the teeth-ridge, while the sides of the tongue are raised. Thus a rounded narrowing is formed between the tip of the tongue and the teeth-ridge. The soft palate is raised, the air passes through the narrowing with friction. In the production of /s/ the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of /z/ they are drawn near together and vibrate.

Thus the English /s/ may be defined as a forelingual apical alveolar constrictive fricative voiceless consonant phoneme.

The English /z/ is a forelingual apical alveolar constrictive voiced consonant phoneme.

Graphic notations:

s in the initial and medial positions – basket, sea,

s in the final position after a voiceless consonant – books, lamps.

c before e, i, y – bicycle, certain, cinema

sc – scene, science

ces – in the middle of place-names – Gloucester, Leicester, Worcester

ps – pseudonym, psychology

Repeat these words starting with /s/:

sill sin sieve

sign sight size

suit soup soon

soak soul soar

sage safe sail

Repeat these words with /s/ in the medial position:

fasten hasten glisten

chaser presser looser

lassy bossy messy

pricing crossing greasing

cases faces crisis

Repeat these words ending with /s/:

peace niece geese

guess legs mess

pass brass ass

sauce loss toss

house mouse louse

Repeat some short phrases:

a seesaw seasickness

soap ends sob sister

safe and sound smoke screen

sunstroke sterling silver

Repeat these sentences:

Sam said that he set the salt on the sill.

He tossed the bass on the grass in the sun.

The price of grass seed is so high it is out of sight.

The saffron sail glistened in the sunset.

Sue sewed a seam in her silk stocking.

Graphic notations:

z – citizen, lazy

zz – drizzle, puzzle

s – between vowels – poison, resist

s – in the final position after vowels and voiced consonants

-days, gives.

Repeat these words starting with /z/:

zeal zero zebra

zed zest Zelda

zipper zinc zither

zoo zoom zone

Zion zodiac zombie

Here are some words with /z/ in the medial position:

easy cozy dizzy

fuzzy cousin nuzzle

noisy nosy posing

wiser houses visor

prizes pauses blouses

Repeat these words ending with /z/:

does buzz fuzz

eyes prize wise

goes woes hose

haze gaze maze

poise noise boys

Repeat these sentences:

The visitor is dozing in the cozy chair as he always does.

The zealous student studied zebras in zoology.

Please zip up the zipper of my blouse.

He zig-zagged through the zoo like a zombie.

He says he froze his nose and ears at zero degrees.

The bees buzzed among my cousin's roses and zinnias.

The zeppelin zoomed around and zeroed in on the zealot's zone.

Phonemes / θ /, / ð/

In pronouncing the English / θ /, / ð/ the tip of the tongue is flattened and slightly projected out between the upper and the lower teeth. The soft palate is raised. The air passes through the flat narrowing formed between the teeth and the tongue with friction.

In the production of / θ / the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of / ð/ they are drawn near together and vibrate.

The English / θ / may be defined as a forelingual inter-dental aical fricative voiceless consonant phoneme.

Graphic notations:

th in the initial and final positions – thin, teeth

th in the middle of words of Latin and Greek origin – author, method

Repeat these words starting with /θ/:

theme thief thesis

thick thin think

thole thorn thorp

thug thumb thud

third thirsty Thursday

Repeat these words with / θ / in the medial position:

zither breath Seth

ether lath path

nothing oath growth

mythical Ruth booth

pathos broth quoth

Repeat this tongue twister:

She sifted thistles, thick twisted thistles.

Sifting the thick twisted thistles sat she;

She sifted thistles thick twisted thistles.

And with strong string strung them in sheaves sheepishly.

She sifted thistles, thick twisted thistles.

And Cissy, her sister, assisted in sifting.

The thick thistles her sister twisted.

The English / ð/ is a forelingual interdental apical fricative voiced consonant phoneme.

Graphic notations:

th between vowels – father, weather

th in pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions – this, there, than, with

th in the final position before e – bathe, lathe

Repeat these words starting with / ð/:

thee these this

them then they

that than thy

those though thou

there their they're

Repeat these words with /ð/ in the medial position:

weather leather whether

other mother brother

lather rather father

either neither wither

worthy southern northern

Repeat these words ending with /ð/:

teethe seethe seathe

wreathe writhe tithe

soothe mouthe loathe

lathe swathe lithe

Repeat these sentences:

A northern wind will with those blooms.

We can say, either or either, neither or neither.

They tell us the nether regions seethe with wreathing smoke.

Mother soothed the teething baby.

Although the soap is good, it doesn't lather.

The leather workers would rather live in southern Canada.

The knight tethered his horse and unsheathed his sword.

They're putting their books over there on that table.

The weather determines whether my father's back will ache.

I loathe seeing thugs smash things to smithereens.

Thou hast thy hat; put it on thyself.

Get thee thither and defend thine own.

Phonemes /ʃ/, / ʒ /

In pronouncing the English /ʃ/,/ ʒ / the tip and the blade of the tongue are raised towards the black of the teeth-ridge, forming a flat narrowing. The distance between the front of the tongue and the hard palate is rather narrow and a front secondary focus is formed there. The soft palate is raised, the lips are rounded and slightly protruded. In the production of /ʃ/ the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of / ʒ / they are drawn near together and vibrate.

The English /ʃ/ may be defined as a forelingual palato-alveolar apical fricative voiceless consonant with a front secondary focus.

The English /ʒ / is defined as a forelingual palate-alveolar apical fricative voiced consonant phoneme with a front secondary focus.

Graphic notations:

sh – fish, ship

ch in word of French origin – champagne, machine

ci, si, ti in the medial position – ancient, Asia, inpatient

ss before – ion – discussion, expression.

Here are some words starting with /ʃ/:

She sheep sheath

shave shale shame

shed chef shell

shook sure should

show shore shoal

shy shine shies

Repeat these words with /ʃ/ in the medial position:

mission fishing fissure

passion fashion ration

luscious mushy conscious

Phonemes /t∫/, /dʒ/

In pronouncing the English /t∫/, /dʒ/ the tip and the blade of the tongue touch the back part of the teeth-ridge. The air-passage through the mouth cavity as completely blocked for a short time. The front of the tongue is raised in the direction of the hard palate, and the tip of the tongue is slowly removed from the teeth-ridge forming a flat narrowing through which the air passes with friction. The soft palate is raised. In the production of /t∫/ the vocal cords are kept apart and do not vibrate, whereas in the articulation of /dʒ/ they are drawn apart near together and vibrate.

The English /t∫/ may be defined as a forelingual palato-alveolar voiceless affricate with a front secondary focus.

The English /dʒ/ may be defined as a forelingual palato-alveolar apical voiceless affricate with a front secondary focus.

Repeat these sentences :

Charlie chopped a branch off the beech tree.

I choose potato chips and chubby chicken.

The children cheered when they reached the beach.

The chickadees chirped cheerfully in the birch tree.

Repeat these sentences:

Jenny joked and jested with the juggler.

Jack went by jumbo-jet to Jamaica in January.

Jessie was jealous and went to Japan in June.

Jed generally drives his jeep to Jasper.

The joggers will enjoy the orange juice.

Don't jiggle or joggle or jump or budge.

The judge and jury were gentle with the juvenile.

Madge's jewellery is not just junk; she has jade and gem stones.

Phoneme /l/

In pronouncing the English /l/ the tip of the tongue touches the teeth-ridge. The sides of the tongue are lowered forming rather wide passages. The air passes along these channels without audible friction. The soft palate is raised. The vocal cords are drawn near together and vibrate.

The English /l/ is a forelingual alveolar apical constrictive lateral sonorant.

The consonant /l/ has the two varieties in English. Before vowels and /j/ there appears a ‘clear' variant of /l/. In pronouncing the ‘clear' /l/ a secondary focus is formed by the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, e.g. lesson, value. At the end of words and before consonants there appears a ‘dark' variant of /l/. In pronouncing the ‘dark' /l/ a secondary focus is formed by the back of the tongue raies towards the soft palate, e.g. bell, children.

Repeat these sentences containing /l/ :

Lily likes to look for little shells.

Larry looks lonely; let's tell him a tall tale.

It's cruel to fight a duel with a fool.

Saul will broil the loin in the broiler.

The Isle of Mull lies across the Kyle of Lochalsh.

The elderly lady likes shawls of silk and wool.

Paul fiddled with the dial before calling Sally in Lawrenceville.

Golly, Sally is trying to pull that full load to the pool.

Bill failed to lead the bull to its stall on the hill.

Phoneme /r/

In pronouncing the English /r/ the tip of the tongue is raised towards the back of the teeth-ridge, forming a rather wide narrowing. The front of the tongue is to some extent depressed (cacuminal articulation). The sides of the tongue are raised and the air escapes along the central line of the tongue without audible friction.

The English /r/ may be defined as a forelingual, post-alveolar cacuminal constrictive medial sonorant.