GLOSSARY OF PHONETIC TERMS.
Date: 2015-10-07; view: 4270.
Òåðìèíîëîãè÷åñêèé âîêàáóëÿð - ñïðàâî÷íèê.
Äàííûé ðàçäåë ñîäåðæèò îñíîâíûå òåðìèíû, íåîáõîäèìûå äëÿ èçó÷åíèÿ êóðñà òåîðåòè÷åñêîé ôîíåòèêè, ñ èõ êðàòêèì ïîÿñíåíèåì.
A
ACCENT –is stress and pitch combined.
ACCOMODATION –adaptation of two different adjacent sounds.
ACCURACY OF PRONUNCIATION –correct and distinct pronunciation.
ACCOUSTIC PHONETICS – a branch of phonetics which deals with physical properties of sounds.
ADJACENT SOUNDS –sounds that follow each other.
AFFRICATES -the sounds formed during the separation of the articulating organs in their articulation the complete closure gradually and uninterruptedly opens into a flat-slit narrowing.
ALLOPHONES are sounds which are variants of a phoneme: they usually occur in
different positions in a word and cannot contrast with each other, nor be used to make
meaningful distinctions.
ALTERNATION OF SOUNDS changes of the sounds in different derivatives from the
same root or in different grammatical forms of the same word or in different allomorphs
of the same morpheme, child — children.
ALVEOLAR CONSONANTS articulated by the tip of the tongue, which makes a
complete obstruction with the alveoles, for example, /t, d, s, /.
ALVEOLES, or ALVEOLI — depressions in the upper jaw, which socket the upper
teeth.
APEX —the tip of the tongue.
APICAL— articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the
alveolar ridge.
ARTICULATE — to pronounce audibly and distinctly.
ARTICULATION— coordinated movements of speech organs in the process of speech.
ARTICULATION BASIS - must be comprehended as the whole complex of movements and positions of the speech organs which are habitual for a given language in the process of articulating its phonemes.
ARTICULATORY PHONETICS — is the branch of phonetics that studies the way in
which the air is set in motion, the movements of the speech organs and the coordination
of these movements in the production of single sounds and trains of sounds
ASPECTS OF A PHONEME : a phoneme is a dialectical unity of three aspects 1.
material, real and objective, 2. abstractional and generalized; 3 functional.
ASPIRATION — a slight puff of breath which is heard after the explosion of /p, t, k/ in
initial position.
ASSIMILATION— the result of adaptation of one sound to another. It can be
progressive, regressive or reciprocal. Most commonly the sounds which undergo
assimilation are immediately adjacent in the stream of speech.
ATTITUDINAL FUNCTION — this function is performed by intonation when the
speaker expresses his attitude to what he is saying by intonation alone.
B
BACK the term is used in phonetics to characterize the vowels, which are formed with
the bulk of the tongue in the back part of the mouth cavity, when it is raised towards the
junction between the hard and the soft parts of the palate.
BACK ADVANCED VOWELS — the term characterizes vowels, which are formed
with the back advanced position of the bulk of the tongue.
BACKLINGUAL CONSONANTS- are articulated by the back of the tongue against the
soft palate.
BICENTRAL — formed with two places of articulation.
BILABIAL- articulated by the upper and the lower lip. Bilabial consonants are: /p, w, b, m/.
BLOCK— to prevent the air from flowing out of the mouth cavity when the soft palate
is lowered and the air passes out of the nasal cavity. The air passage through the mouth
cavity is blocked in the articulation of /m, n/.
BLOW— to direct the air from the mouth or nasal cavity.
BREATH — the process of blowing the air out of the mouth or nasal cavity through the
bronchi and the wind pipe, or blowing it into the lungs.
BRONCHI— two main divisions of the trachea, leading into the lungs.
C
CENTRAL CONSTRIC1VE SONANTS - in articulating central sonants the flow of theair passes through the mouth along the central line of the tongue.
CENTRAL VOWELS — vowels formed by the central part of the tongue.
CHECKED VOWELS short stressed vowels pronounced without any decrease in the force of articulation and immediately followed by strong voiceless consonants, e g HI in die word city.
CHEEKS— sides of the mouth cavity.
CLEAR SOUNDthe sound which is made softer due to additionalarticulatory work.
COMBINATORY ALLOPHONES appear in the process of speech and result from the influence of one phoneme upon another.
COMMUTATION METHOD — one of the basic methods of phonemic investigation, which consists in the discovery of minimal pairs.
COMPARATIVE PHONETICS — this branch of phonetics studies the correlation between the phonetic system of two or more languages.
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION — takes place when an allophone of one and the same phoneme occurs in a definite set of context in which no other allophone of the same phoneme occurs.
COMPLETE ASSIMILATION — assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds fully coincides with the other.
CONSONANT — a sound of noise which is formed by a complete or incomplete obstruction. As a rule, consonants are non syllabic.
CONSTRICTIVE CONSONANTS - in making constrictive consonants the active organs of speech do not block the air-passage completely, but form a narrowing of the air-passage
CONSTRICTIVE FRICATIVE SOUNDS— in the articulation of these sounds the air passage is narrowed or constricted to such an extent that the air passing through it produces noise or friction.
CONSTRICTIVE SONANTS — in the articulation of these sounds the narrowing for the air passage is not wide enough to eliminate the noise or friction completely, on the other hand it is wide enough to make the cavity function as a resonator. They are /w, 1, r/.
CONTRASTIVE DISTRIBUTION means that the phonemes are found in contrastive distribution.
CUCUMINAL CONSONANTS - in articulating cacuminal forelingual consonants the obstruction is formed by the tip of the tongue while a spoon-shaped depression is formed in the central part of the tongue.
D
DARK SOUND — the sound which is made harder due to additional articulatory work
DEFECTS OF SPEECH — drawbacks in pronunciation.
DENTAL CONSONANTS— consonants produced with the tip and the blade of the
tongue placed against the upper front teeth. For example /t, d, n/.
DESCRIPTIVE PHONETICS — studies the contemporary phonetic system of a
language i.e. the system of its pronunciation, and gives a description of all the phonetic
units of this language.
DIACHRONIC APPROACH — a branch of phonetics that deals with analysis of the phenomena which refers to different periods of development.
DIACRITIC MARKS — additional symbols used to characterize separate phonemes or their allophones.
DIALECTOLOGY — the branch of phonetics which studies the dialectal differences in pronunciation.
DICTION a way of speaking the selection and control of words to express ideas (command of vocabulary, grammatical correctness, affective word order, etc). DIPHTHONG — a vowel phoneme which consists of two elements: a nucleus and a glide.
DIPHTHONGIZATION slight shifting of the organs of speech position with in the articulation of one and the same vowel (these organs are mostly — the tongue, the lips and the lower jaw). Diphthongization changes the quality of the sound during its articulation.
DIPHTHONGOIDS — diphthongized sounds that is the sounds in production of which the active organs of speech glide from one position to another within articulation of the same sound.
DISTINCTIVE ACCENTEME - the term which is used to denote a suprasegmental phonological unit which serves to perform distinctive function
DISTINCTIVE (RELEVANT) FEATURES are those articulatory features which form the invariant of the phoneme.
DISTRIBUTIONmeans the totality of all possible contexts in which a given language unit is used.
DISTRIBUTIONAL ANALYSIS — this method helps to establish the distribution of speech sounds, i.e. all the positions or combinations in which each speech sound of a given language occurs (or does not occur) in the words of the language.
DORSAL CONSONANTS— pronounced with the blade the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge.
DOUBLE OPPOSITION- an opposition when 2 sounds differ along two lines, i.e. they
have two distinctively relevant features.
DOUBLE STRESS— two stresses within one and the same word, e g disagree
DYNAMIS STRESS - special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achieved mainly through the intensity of articulation.
E
ELISION— dropping off of a vowel in initial or terminal position.
EMPHASIS — combination of the expressive means of the language to single out
emphatic words, groups of words or whole sentences.
EMPHATIC— that which refers to emphasis.
ENCLITIC — unstressed word or syllable, which refers to the preceding stressed word
or syllable.
EXHALE — to breathe the air out of the lungs and the mouth cavity. EXPERIMENTAL PHONETICS - the branch of phonetics which studies phonetic phenomena through observation and calculations with the help of different apparatus and
devices.
EXPLOSION — noise made by the air, when it is suddenly released through a complete obstruction. The sounds /p, t, k/ are pronounced with a plosion, or explosion. EXTRALINGUISTIC FACTORS - It is the sum total of factors which lie outside any possibility of signaling linguistic meaning . The analysis shows that any extralinguistic situation can be defined by three components, mat is purpose, participants, setting. These components distinguish situation as the context within which interaction (communication) occurs.
F
FALL— lowering of the voice pitch within a stressed syllable.
FIXED STRESS - that is it may fall on any syllable in a word: on the first—'mother, on
the second—occasion, on the third - opportunity
FLAT NARROWING — passage for the flow of air, which is more or less flat. The
sounds /f, v/ are pronounced with the flat narrowing.
FORELINGUAL— articulated by the tip of the tongue raised against the upper teeth or
the teeth ridge For example: /t, d, n/are forelingual consonants.
FORTIS CONSONANTS — voiceless plosives and constrictives, which are pronounced with strong muscular tension and strong expiratory effort (compare with lenis
consonants).
FREE VOWEL - a vowel which is followed by a weak voiced consonant
FREE WORD ACCENT — the type of accent which is characterized by the free
accidence of the word accent; in different words of the language different syllables can
be stressed — the first, the second, the third. Free word accent has two subtypes: a)
constant, which always remains on the same morpheme: wonder, wonderfully and b)
shifting, which changes its place: ñ'àä, ñàäîâ'îä.
FREE VARIATIONa pattern of distribution in which a phoneme do not change its
basic qualities, for example: e.g. the pronunciation of [p, t, k] with different degrees of
aspiration.
FRICATIVE CONSONANTS — produced by friction of the flow of air through the narrowing formed by articulatory organs. For example: /v, s, z/.
FRONT OF THE TONGUE — the blade and the tip of the tongue. The blade and the
middle of the tongue in the terminology of English phoneticians.
FRONT VOWELS — vowels articulated when the bulk of the tongue moves forward
and its front part is raised highest towards the hard palate.
FUNCTIONAL STYLISTICS - the branch of linguistics that is primarily concerned with
the problems of functional styles.
G
GENERAL AMERICAN — the most widespread type of educated American speech.
GENERAL PHONETICS — a branch of phonetics that deals with analysis, description,
and comparison of phonetic phenomena in different languages.
GLIDE - the second element of a diphthong.
GLOTTAL STOP — a sound which reminds a slight cough and is articulated by the
vocal cords, before a vowel sound is heard, in cases of emphatic speech.
GLOTTIS— the space between the vocal cords, which is the entrance to the trachea, or
the windpipe.
H
HARD PALATE— the roof of the mouth.
HEAD— stressed syllables preceding the nucleus together with the intervening
unstressed syllables.
HISS — noise produced when the air passes through a round narrowing and produces hissing noise.
HISTORICAL ASSIMILATION — sound changes, which are the result of the historical development of the language.
HISTORICAL PHONETICS — that branch of phonetics, which studies phonetic components on the diachronic level, it is apart of the history of a language, which studies the history of the development of the phonetic laws.
I
INTERCOMMUNICATION - giving or passing information by means of oral speech. INTERPRETATION - is the stage when the linguistic information is interpreted. INTONATION — a component of the phonetic structure which is viewed in the narrow meaning as pitch variations or speech melody. It manifests itself in the delimitative function within a sentence and at its end.
INTONATION GROUP — an actualized sense group.
IRRELEVANT FEATURES - different articulatory and acoustic features of speech sounds, which do not make them allophones of different phonemes, e.g.: partial devoicing of terminal voiced consonants, variation in the positional length of vowels.
INVARIANT - is a functionally relevant bundle of articulatory features which can't be changed without affecting the meaning.
J
JAWS –parts of the mouth, which bear teem and by means of which the mouth can be opened and closed.
JUNCTION— the joining of two sounds or words.
JUNCTURE — the place, where two sounds or words are joined together.
K
KINETIC — relating to motion, producing motion.
L
LABIAL — relating to the lips.
LABIAL CONSONANT — articulated by the lips. For example /p, b/
LABIO-DENTAL - a consonant produced with the help of the lower lip being pressed
against the upper teeth.
LABIALIZATION— lip rounding.
LABIALIZED VOWELS— vowels produced with a more or less lip rounding.
LARYNX — an organ of the respiratory tract above the wind pipe. It consists of an
elaborate arrangement of cartilage and muscles and contains a pair of vocal cords.
LATERAL SOUNDS — sounds in the articulation of which the air passages (or
passage) are formed at the lateral sides of the tongue. At the same time the contact is
made by the tip of the tongue pressed against the teeth ridge as in /l/ articulation.
LAWS OF PHONEMIC AND ALLOPHONIC DISTRIBUTION —1 if different
speech sounds occur in the same phonetic context, they are allophones of different
phonemes, 2. if similar speech sounds occur in different positions and never occur in the
same phonetic context, they are variants of one and the same phoneme.
LAX VOWELS — vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the
tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is not so great as in the articulation
of tense vowels.
LENGTH OF THE SOUND — length of the sound waves in the articulation of a sound.
LENIS —pronounced with weak articulation: /b, d, z... /.
LETTERS — printed or written symbols of an alphabet used in representing speech
sounds.
LEVEL TONE -tone neutral in its communicative function, which is used mostly in poetry.
LINGUAL CONSONANTS- in pronouncing lingual consonants the obstruction is
formed by the tongue.
LONG VOWELS - the vowels having a relatively bigger length, or quantity in
comparison with the short vowels.
LOSS OF PLOSION — in phonetics it is absence of some articulatory work. Loss of
plosion, sound, etc, e.g. act— loss of plosion in /k/.
LOW LEVEL TONE - characterizes unstressed but prominent syllables of parenthetic
groups or long tails.
LUNGS— the source of the air stream that makes it possible to produce sounds. The
latter also regulate the force of the air pressure and produce vibrations in the intensity of
speech sounds.
M
MEDIOLINGUAL CONSONANTS - are articulated by the front of the tongue raised towards the hard palate.
MELODY - changes in the voice pitch in the process of speech.
METHOD OF MINIMAL PAIRS —the discovery of as many pairs of words as
possible, that differ in one phoneme. It is based on the substitution of one sound for
another, commutation.
METHOD OF DISTINCTIVE OPPOSITIONS - this method enables to prove whether
the phonetic difference is relevant or not.
METHODS OF PHONETIC ANALYSIS — different methods used in the study and
investigation of different phonetic phenomena.
MINIMAL PAIR — a pair the distinctive differences between the members of which are
based upon one distinctive difference. The pair pill— bill is minimal, because its
members are differentiated due to /p — b/ phonemes, their fortis /p/ — lenis /b/
distinctions.
MONOPHTHONG — a vowel sound in the articulation of which the articulating organs
are more or less stable, which results in the stationary nature of the vowel.
MONOSYLLABLE —aword consisting of one syllable.
MOUTH — the cavity in the head containing the teeth, the tongue and the palate with
the uvula.
MOUTH CAVITY — the cavity between the teeth and the pharynx.
MULPIPLY OPPOSITION- an opposition when 2 sounds differ along many lines i.e.
they have many distinctively relevant features.
MUSICAL STRESS - special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved mainly
through the change of pitch, or musical tone. It is characteristic of the Japanese, Korean
and other oriental languages.
N
NARROW TRANSCRIPTION — the system of transcription signs into which additional symbols are included which correspond to allophones of some phonemes.
NASAL CAVITY— immovable cavity inside the nose and the nasopharynx. It is separated from the mouth cavity by the upper jaw within teethridge and the palate.
NASAL SONANTS— they are articulated with the blocked passage for the flow of air through the mouth cavity. Nasal sonants are /m, n/.
NASAL TWANG is characteristic of American pronunciation and results from the laxness of the soft palate which does not cover the nasal cavity completely and the air escapes partly through the narrowing formed.
NASAL VOWELS — vowels articulated when the flow of air is directed from the lungs both through the mouth and the nasal cavity. Nasal vowels exist in the French language. NASALIZATION —nasal twang.
NON-DISTINCTIVE, irrelevant or redundant features are those articulatory features which do not serve to distinguish meaning.
NON-LABIALIZED VOWELS — vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not rounded.
NUCLEAR TONE — the tone associated with the nucleus of a sense-group is a nuclear tone. In RP they are the following: the high falling, the low falling, the high rising, the low rising, the rising-falling, the falling-rising, the rising-falling-rising, the level tone.
NUCLEUS OF A DIPHTHONG — that part of the diphthong, which is more prominent, that is the stressed element of a diphthong (which is always the first one in English)
OBSTRUCTION — in articulation it is either a narrowing (incomplete obstruction) or a complete closure of the speech organs (complete obstruction).
OCCLUSIVE — in making occlusive consonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction.
OCCLUSIVE SONANTS - in making occlusive sonants the active organs of speech form a complete obstruction: the air passage through the mouth is blocked, the soft palate is lowered and the air passes through the nasal cavity.
OFF-GLIDE STAGE - the third stage when theorgans of speech return to their neutral position i.e. to the position of rest.
ON-GLIDE STAGE - the first stage when the articulatory organs of speech leave the neutral position necessary for pronunciation of a given sound.
OPPOSITION — comparison of sounds along the lines of their qualitative and quantitative characteristics which results in singling out their minimal distinctive features, that are phonologically relevant or irrelevant. The opposition can be single, double or multiple.
ORGANS OF SPEECH – the organs that together with biological functions, such as breathing,feeding, smelling and tasting, serve to carry out intercommunication through the elaborate work of the four mechanisms: the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor.
P
PALATALIZATION — softening of consonants, which results from the secondary place of articulation — front-secondary focus. It takes place when the middle part of the tongue is raised to the hard palate and the air passage is narrowed or constricted, which gives the consonant soft colouring.
PALATE— the roof of the mouth, separating the mouth cavity from the nasal cavity. In articulatory phonetics it is divided into the hard palate, the soft palate with the uvula and the teeth ridge.
PARTIAL ASSIMILATION- assimilation when one of the two adjacent sounds acquires some articulatory or acoustic likeness to that other.
PAUSE — a short period of time when sound stops before starting again. Pauses are non-obligatory between sense-groups and obligatory between sentences.
PENULTIMATE —the last but one syllable.
PHARYNGAL CONSONANTS - are the consonants which are produced in the pharynx.
PHARYNX — the cavity between the mouth and the esophagus communicating with the nasal passages and ears.
PHONEME — is the smallest language unit that exists in speech of all the members of a given language community as such speech sounds which are capable of distinguishing one word of the same language or one grammatical form of a word from another grammatical from of the same word. Each phoneme exists in speech in the form of mutually non-distinctive speech sounds, its allophones. Each speech sound is an allophone of some phoneme.
PHONETIC SYSTEM - is a systemic combination of five components of the language, i.e. the system of segmental phonemes, the phonemic component, the syllabic
component, the accentual component, intonation.
PHONETICS — is a branch of linguistics which studies speech sounds (phonemes),
word-stress and intonation. Phonetics studies the articulation and acoustic qualities of
speech sounds, the physical characteristics and sound perception of stress and intonation,
the lexical and grammatical role of phonemes, word-stress and intonation.
PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS of a language is the process of the identification of the
phonemes and finding out patterns of relationship into which they fell as the sound
system of that language. The first step is to determine the minimum recurrent segments
(segmentation of speech continuum). The next step in the procedure is arranging sounds
into functionally similar groups. There are two most widely used methods to define
whether sounds are contrastive or merely allophones. They are the distributional method
and the semantic method.
PHONOLOGICAL OPPOSITION— a pair of words in which any one phoneme is
usually opposed to any other phoneme in at least one lexical or grammatical minimal or
subminimal pair, e.g. /t — d/, /k — g/ in ten — den, coat — goat.
PHONOLOGY — the science that deals with phonemes and their sequences and
investigates the functional side of phonemes, accent, syllable, and intonation that is as
units serving for the purpose of communication.
PHONOSTYLISTTCS is the branch of linguistics which studies phonetic phenomena
from the stylistic point. It deals with the main phonetic peculiarities of existing
intonation styles, which are displayed in a variety of text generated in everyday
communication of a modern man. Phonostylistics studies the way phonetic means are
used in this or that particular situation which exercises the conditioning influence of a set
of factors which are referred to as extralinguistic. The aim of phonostylistics is to
analyze all possible kinds of spoken utterances with the main purpose of identifying the
phonetic features, both segmental and suprasegmental, which are restricted to certain
kinds of contexts, to explain why such features have been used and to classify them into
categories based upon a view of their function.
PHONOTACTICS studies patterns of combinability of speech sounds and frequency of their occurrence.The knowledge of phonotactics possibilities also shows us how this
system works, where we have opportunities or taboos.
PHYSIOLOGICAL STAGE - it is the stage when the message formed within the brain is transmitted along the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore we may say that the human brain controls the behavior of the articulating organs which effects producing a particular pattern of speech sounds.
PHYSICAL OR ACOUSTIC STAGE - it is the stage when the movements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves.
PITCH— the degree of highness or lowness varying with the number of vibrations of a note.
V. A. Vassilyev defines it as "perception of the frequency of repeated pressures on the ear-drum".
PLACE OF ARTICULATION — the place, where a complete or incomplete obstruction is formed in the articulation of consonants.
PLOSION — an abrupt separation of speech organs at the place of articulation.
PLOSIVE CONSONANTS — in pronouncing plosives the articulating organs form a
complete obstruction which is suddenly broken by the pressure of the air exhaled from
the lungs and a kind of "explosion" called plosion, is heard.
Plosive consonants are /p, b, t, d, k, g, m, n, n/.
POSITIONAL ALLOPHONES — variants of a phoneme which are used in definite
positions due to the tradition of a language pronunciation, e.g. dark /l/and light /l/.
PRIMARY STRESS — the stress which is the strongest compared with the other
stresses used in a word.
PRINCIPAL ALLOPHONE — that variant of a phoneme which is considered to be free from the influence of the neighbouring sounds.
PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION — the process when the first of the two neighbouring sounds influences the second and makes it similar to itself.
PROSODIC FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE— they are: speech melody, the pitch (fundamental frequency), accent, tempo, rhythm and pausation, tamber, they constitute intonation in the broad sense — prosodation or prosodization.
PROTRUDE— to move forward. In phonetics this term is connected with the protrusion
of the lips.
PSYCHOLOGICAL STAGE - is the stage when the formation of the concept takes
place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker.
Q
QUALITATIVE STRESS —is achieved through the changes in the quality of the vowel under stress.
QUANTITATIVE STRESS— special prominence in a stressed syllable is achieved through the changes in the quantity of the vowels, which are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones.
R
RECEIVED PRONUNCIATION — the type of pronunciation which is the most widely understood one in England and in English speaking countries. It is the teaching norm in England and in most countries where English is taught as a foreign language. RECEPTION - is the stage when sound waves are received by the listener's hearing apparatus
RECESSIVE STRESS — stress that falls on the first syllable or the root of the word if it is preceded by a prefix that has lost its meaning e.g.: 'import, be'fore.
RECESSIVE TENDENCY — the tendency which consists in gradual shifting of word accent to the first syllable (which is usually the foot of the word).
REDUCE — to make smaller or less. For example, to reduce the intensity of a sound, to
reduce the quantity of a sound.
REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION — the process when the second of the neighbouring
sounds influences the first one and makes it similar to itself
RETENTION STAGE -the second stage when the organs of speech are kept for some
time in the position necessary in the production of a sound(non-complex) or move from
one position to another(within a complex sound, for example: a diphthongoind, a
diphthong, an affricate.
RETENTIVE TENDENCY — this tendency is characterized by the retention of accent
in the derivative on the same syllable on which it falls in the parent word
RHYME — the repetition of identical or similar terminal sounds, sound combinations or
words.
RHYTHM—"rhythm is a flow, movement, procedure, etc. characterized by basically
regular recurrence of elements or features, as beat, or accent, in alternation with opposite
or different elements or features" (Webster's New World Dictionary). Rhythm in speech
is the periodic recurrence of stressed syllables. Rhythm exists both in prose and in
poetry. It can be regarded as one of the forms in which a language exists.
RHYTHMIC STRESS— the term refers to the cases when there are equal number of
unstressed syllables between two beats.
RHYTHMIC TENDENCY— the tendency to alternate stressed and unstressed syllables
This tendency gave rise to the origin of the secondary stress, especially in four-syllable
words of foreign origin.
ROLLED CONSONANTS —such consonants are pronounced when the tip of the
tongue (or the uvula) vibrates in the flow of air and interrupts it repeatedly, so that the
flow of the air is momentarily obstructed by the vibrating organ (or organs).
S
SCALE — the arrangement of stressed and unstressed syllables of a syntactic whole. SCALE OF SONORITY — the arrangement of phonemes according to their degree of loudness. According to this scale the most sonorous are front low vowels, then go sonants and voiced consonants. Voiceless consonants are characterized by minimal sonority.
SEMANTIC METHOD consists in finding pairs of words which differ in one phoneme. For example, if we replace [b] by [t] in the word ban we produce a new word tan, ban — tan is a pair of words distinguished in meaning by a single sound change. Two words of this kind are termed "minimal pair".
SEMANTIC TENDENCY — according to this type of tendency words with separable prefixes and compound words have two equally strong stresses, eg 'un'known, 'eye "witness.
SENTENCE STRESS — the greater degree of prominence given to certain words in a sentence. These words are usually nouns, adjectives, notional verbs and adverbs, interjections, numerals, demonstrative, possessive, emphasizing pronouns, interrogative words and two-syllable prepositions. Articles, particles to and there, auxiliary, modal, and connective verbs, personal, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns, one-syllable prepositions, conjunctions and conjunctive words — are, as a rule, unstressed. The distribution of sentence stress is determined by the semantic factor.
SHORT VOWELS - the vowels having a relatively smaller length, or quantity in comparison with the long vowels (other conditions remaining the same).
SINGLE OPPOSITION- an opposition when 2 sounds differ along one line, i.e. they have only one distinctively relevant feature.
SPEECH SOUND— a material unit, produced by speech organs. It is very concrete. A sound only becomes a speech one if it has a certain set of basic characteristic features that make this sound identifiable and recognizable in a speech flow despite various changes which it can undergo under the influence of its neighbors A speech sound can be viewed from the articulatory, acoustic, auditory and functional points of view.
STABILITY OF ARTICULATION is the state when the shape, volume and orifice-size of the mouth resonator are stable According to the stability of articulation English vowels are divided into monophthongs, diphthongs and diphthongoids.
STRESSorACCENT is a greater degree of prominence which is effected mainly by pronouncing the stressed syllable (a) on a different pitch or with a change of pitch direction in it, (b) with greater force of exhalation and greater muscular tension. The greater force of articulation is accompanied by an increase in the length of the sound in the stressed syllable, especially vowels. Vowels in the stressed syllables are not reduced. STYLE- the principles of this selection and arrangement, the ways of combining the elements form what is called "the style".
SUBSIDIARY MEMBERS(allophones) —variants of phonemes that appear under the influence of the neighbouring phonemes with which they are in complementary distribution. They are subdivided into 1 combinatory and 2 positional.
SUBSTITUTION METHOD — the method of replacing of one speech sound by another in the same position to see whether it results in a minimal pair, eg pen, fen, den. SYLLABIC — capable of forming a syllable.
SYLLABIC SOUNDS - sounds that can form the peaks of prominence, they are vowels and sonants other than /j, w/.
SYLLABLE- shortest segment of speech continuum. Syllables are material carriers of words. They constitute words and their forms, phrases and sentences. According to J Kenyon the syllable is one or more speech sounds, forming a single uninterrupted unit of utterance, which may be a word, or a commonly recognized subdivision of a word. SYLLABLE DIVISION- division of the word into "arcs of articulatory effort" (N.I. Zhinkin's theory). A strong end consonant begins the arc of loudness and a weak end consonant terminates it. Compare day-aid, in the first word /d/ constitutes the beginning of the arc of loudness, or the beginning or a syllable, it is progressively voiced. In the second word /d/ constitutes the end of the arc of loudness or the end of the syllable, it is progressively devoiced.
T
TAIL — unstressed or partly stressed syllables (or syllable) that follow the nucleus of the intonation group.
TAMBER — the quality of a musical sound, depending on what overtones are present
and their respective amplitudes.
TEMPO OF SPEECH — the rate of utterance.
TEMPORAL COMPONENT OF INTONATION — it consists of pauses, duration,
rhythm.
TENSE VOWELS - vowels in the articulation of which the muscular tension of the
tongue, lips, and the walls of the resonating cavities is greater than in the articulation of
lax vowels.
TERMINAL TONE — a change of pitch at the junction of two sense groups. The
American descriptivists use the term "clause terminal".
TONGUE — the most important and movable articulatory organ.
TONOGRAM — graphic representation of intonation.
ITRANSCRPTION — the system of signs in which sounds are symbolized.
Transcription represents sounding speech. A phonemic, or linguistically broad,
transcription is based on the principle "one symbol per phoneme". The symbols of
phonemic transcription are placed between slanting lines / /.
An allophonic or linguistically narrow transcription is based on the principle "one
symbol per allophone" The symbols of an allophonic transcription are usually placed
between square brackets [ ]. In language teaching a phonemic transcription is more
convenient. An allophonic transcription is indispensable to scientific phonetic work.
TRANSMISSION - is the stage when the spoken message is transmitted through the
nervous system to the brain of the listener.
U
UNACCENTED—unstressed.
UNROUNDED VOWELS— vowels in the articulation of which the lips are not
rounded.
UTTERANCE — vocal expression of some idea.
UVULA a fleshy conical body suspended from the soft palate-over the back of the
tongue.
V
VARIANTS FREE —two different allophones of a phoneme pronounced in identical positions by one and the same or different speakers.
VARIATIONS STYLISTIC — variations in the pronunciation of speech sounds, words and sentences peculiar to different styles of speech.
VELUM— the soft palate. When the soft palate is raised the air passes out of the mouth cavity, when the soft palate is lowered the flow of air is directed through the nasal cavity. VIBRATION OF THE VOCAL CORDS — "... when the glottis is narrowed so that the tensed vocal cords approach each other or touch lightly, these may be set in vibratory motion by the outgoing, breath pressure and brought together again by their own elasticity and by muscular tension" (V A Vassilyev).
VOCAL BANDS — elastic folds of membrane inside the larynx which vibrate to produce voice.
VOICEvocal tone produced by the regular vibrations of the vocal cords.
VOICED CONSONANTS — the consonants which are produced with the vocal cords
brought together and vibrating.
VOICELESS CONSONANTS — the consonants which are produced with the vocal
cords taken apart and not vibrating.
VOWEL— a sound which is formed without making any obstruction- As a rule,
vowels are syllabic.
W
WORD DISTINCTIVE ACCENTEME - the term which is used to denote a
suprasegmental phonological unit which serves to distinguish the meaning of different
words.
WORD STRESS or WORD ACCENT — every disyllabic and polysyllabic word
pronounced in isolation has word stress. It is a singling out of one or more of its syllables
by giving them a greater degree of prominence as compared with the other syllable or
syllables in the same word.
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| EXAMPLE OF PHONOSTYLISTIC ANALYSIS. | | | TEST 1. |