Unit VI. Social Psychology

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 575.

Task 1. Read and translate the text “Social Psychology”:

Social Psychology

Social psychology is the study of how social conditions affect human beings. Scholars in this field are generally either psychologists or sociologists, though all social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis. Despite their similarity, the disciplines also tend to differ in their respective goals, approaches, methods and terminology. They also favour separate academic journals and societies.

Social psychology is an interdisciplinary area. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.

Most social psychologists are trained within psychology. Their approach to the field focuses on the individual and attempts to explain how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of individual are influenced by other people. Psychologically oriented researchers emphasize the immediate social situation, and the interaction between person and situation variables. Their research tends to be highly empirical and quantitative, and it is often centered around laboratory experiments.

Psychologists who study social psychology are interested in such topics as attitudes, social cognition, cognitive dissonance, social influence, and interpersonal behaviour such as altruism and aggression. Two influential journals for the publication of research in this area are the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and the Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. There are also many other general and specialized social psychology journals.

A significant number of social psychologists are sociologists. Their work has a greater focus on the behaviour of the group, and thus examines such phenomena as interactions and exchanges at the micro-level, group dynamics and development, and crowds at the macro-level. Sociologists are interested in the individual, but primarily within the context of larger social structures and processes, such as social roles, race and class, and socialization. They use a combination of qualitative research designs and highly quantitative methods, including procedures of sampling and surveys.

Sociologists in this area are interested in a variety of demographic, social, and cultural phenomena. Some of their major research areas are social inequality, group dynamics, social change, socialization, social identity, reactance (Boomerang effect), and symbolic interactionism. The key sociological journal is Social Psychology Quarterly (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Task 2. Translate the words from English into Russian:

1) conditions; 2) to favour; 3) isolation; 4) variables; 5) cognitive dissonance; 6) interaction; 7) social roles; 8) qualitative; 9) social inequality.

Task 3. Match the synonyms:

Task 4. Match the antonyms:

Task 5. Match the words and their definitions:

Task 6. In the text find English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations. Write down your own sentences with the English words:

1) ученые; 2) сотрудничество; 3) совпадение, пересечение; 4) количественный; 5) альтруизм; 6) толпа; 7) социализация, подготовка к жизни в коллективе; 8) метод выборки; 9) социальная идентификация.

Task 7. Answer the questions:

1) What does social psychology study?

2) What are the objects of study in social psychology?

3) When was the period of cooperation between social psychologists and sociologists?

4) What does a social psychologist focus on in his studies?

5) What are the problems raised in social psychology?

6) What are the most influential journals for social psychologists?

7) What are the topics studied in sociological psychology?

8) What methods do sociologists use?

9) What is the main sociological journal?

Task 8. Say whether the statements are true or false. Correct the false statements:

1) There are two types of social psychologists: sociologists and parapsychologists.

2) Psychologists and sociologists have the same aims and use the same methodology.

3) Nowadays there is a certain interconnection between social psychology and sociology.

4) Social psychology is centred around theoretical phenomena and does not deal with experiments.

5) There are two journals on social psychology.

6) Sociologists are concerned with group behaviour.

7) Sociological psychologists examine individual at the macro-level.

8) Sociologists make benefit of using such methods as sampling and surveys.

9) Sociologists usually do not study social changes and process of socialization.

Task 9. In the text find the sentences with these words. Translate them into Russian. Write down words of different parts of speech from the following verbs. Check yourself and look through the vocabulary notes:

1) to affect; 2) to favour; 3) to specialize; 4) to centre; 5) to use.

Vocabulary notes:

1) to affect – действовать, воздействовать, поражать (о болезни), трогать, волновать, задевать, затрагивать, притворяться, делать вид; affectation – притворство, жеманство, искусственность (языка); affected – тронутый, задетый, находящийся под влиянием, пораженный болезнью; affection – привязанность, любовь (toward, for); affectionate – любящий, нежный; affective – эмоциональный.

2) to favour – благоволить, оказывать внимание, поддерживать, беречь, оберегать, щадить, быть похожим; a favour – одолжение, любезность, одобрение, пристрастие, польза, интерес, значок, бант; favourable - благоприятный, удобный, симпатизирующий; favoured – привилегированный, благодарный; favourite – любимец, любимая вещь, любимый; favouritism – фаворитизм.

3) to specialize – специализироваться, приспосабливаться, адаптироваться, индивидуализировать; special – специальный, особый, особенный, индивидуальный, экстренный, дополнительный; specialism – специализация; specialist – специалист; speciality – специальность, отличительная черта, особенность, детали, подробности, специальный ассортимент товаров; specialization – специализация; specially – специально, особенно.

4) to centre – помещать в центре, концентрироваться, сосредотачиваться; centre – центр, середина, центральный игрок, центровой; centrepiece – украшение из серебра, хрусталя и т.п. на середине стола; centric – центральный; centrist – центрист; central – расположенный в центре, центральный, главный; centralization – централизация, сосредоточение; to centralize – централизовать.

5) to use – использовать; use – употребление, применение; usable – годный к употреблению, удобный, практичный; usage – обхождение, обращение, обычай, обыкновение, употребление; usance – установленный торговым обычаем срок платежей по иностранным векселям; used – подержанный, старый, отработанный; used to – привыкший; used up – измученный, изнуренный; useful – полезный, пригодный, способный, успешный; useless – бесполезный, в плохом настроении; user – лицо, осуществляющее пользование, пользователь, потребитель.

Task 10. Translate the sentences into Russian, pay attention to the words from task nine:

1) Low pressure affects his cardiovascular system.

2) The news of her leaving affected him greatly.

3) Don't affect ignorance. I know you are aware of the news.

4) He behaves in a strange way. I think he is affected by some religious organisation, a sect or something.

5) The boy favours his mother.

6) Do me a favour, read this article aloud.

7) He gained his position more by merit than by favour.

8) We wish you favourable wind all through your journey.

9) This book is a great favourite of mine.

10) You should specialize the sphere of your future research project.

11) In summer a lot of people go to the South and railway administration form special trains in that direction.

12) What is your specialization?

13) The discussion centred round one point: What shall the government do to raise pensioners' income.

14) Stop that harsh usage with your employees!

15) In the North of Scandinavian countries the night lasts for half a year and the day lasts for the rest of the time. It is strange but soon you'll get used to it.

16) Vegetables are very useful for health.

Task 11. Translate the sentences into English, pay attention to the words and phrases from task nine:

1) Джон Браун попал под дождь, промок и простудился.

2) Экономическая активность Австралии затронула интересы Китая.

3) Обратите внимание на искусственность стиля. Вам нужно заменить тяжеловесные грамматические конструкции на более разговорный вариант, если вы хотите, чтобы ваш доклад имел успех.

4) Власть и деньги – вот предметы его любви.

5) В качестве одолжения он все же передал ее письмо.

6) На ваш запрос получен благоприятный ответ.

7) На юге Франции особенноблагоприятный климат для выращивания винограда.

8) Наш специальный корреспондент находится на Северном Полюсе вместе с экспедицией полярников. Он находится в самом центре событий. Сейчас вы увидите его экстренный репортаж.

9) Он известный специалист в области орнитологии. У него более пятисот научных работ опубликованных в специализированных научных изданиях.

10) В канун Нового года магазины пускают в продажу свой специальный новогодний ассортимент.

11) Мы возлагаем все наши надежды на тебя.

12) Где здесь торговый центр? – Прямо за углом.

13) Патифоны вышли из употребления много лет назад.

14) Рынок подержанных автомобилей сокращается в пользу рынка новых машин.

15) Что случилось? Ты выглядишь таким измученным. С тобой все в порядке? – Я чувствую себя отвратительно. Я не спал всю ночь. Мой сосед сверху всю ночь репетировал. Он играл на скрипке до самого утра.

Task 12. Translate Russian words in brackets into English to make the text complete:

Russian (социальная психология) goes back to 1962 when the first (лаборатория социальной психологии) was opened at the psychological faculty of (ленинградского университета). From this point, and (особенно) in recent years, there was a great flow of (литературы) on socio-psychological matter. The number of (переводных изданий) grew rapidly. The authors of these books are from (Западной Европы и США). So there are (многочисленные) articles, monographies and other books on general and (специализированным) topics and problems.

Task 13. Translate an abstract from Russian into English:

Социальная психология – это научное исследование того, о чем люди думают, как они влияют друг на друга и как относятся друг к другу. Социальная психология – дочерняя отрасль социологии и психологии, которая стремится быть более индивидуальной по своему содержанию и более экспериментальной в своих методах, чем другие области социологии. По сравнению с психологией личности, социальная психология менее сосредоточена на различиях между индивидами и более – на том, как люди в общем оценивают друг друга и влияют друг на друга. Социальная психология – экзогенная наука, она выявляет, как социальные условия влияют на поведение.

Task 14. Read an abstract and choose suitable words from the brackets:

The majority of socio-psychological … (studies, study, stadiums) are related either to correlation or to experimental studies. Correlation research … (under cover, coverless, uncovers) interrelations between different … (vary, variables, varies), for example, between the education level and … (income, input, outcome). In correlation research … (science, scientists, scientific) use the method of surveys. While experimenting, social psychologists … (inform, forms, form) situations which affect human emotional … (sphere, spheres, sphinx). In such situations they should follow their professional … (ethnic, enthusiastic, ethic) principles. There are, at least, three of them. First, researchers … (shouldn't, should, needn't) receive subjects' agreement. Second, they should be centred on the rule “do not do … (ham, harmful, harm)”. And third, after the experiment the researchers should reveal any possible temporal … (deceitful, detective, deceit). Social psychologists … (integrate, interact, internet) their ideas and data in the fundamental theoretic works. Laboratory experiments … (helps, help, helpless) to prove ideas which came from everyday life and then to use their … (resultative, resultless, results) in real life.

Task 15. Read and translate the text “Psychology of Crowd”. Choose the best answer to the questions:

Psychology of Crowd

There are different attitudes to the notion of crowd in politics and psychology. From the political point of view, crowds are any protest actions of many people which are not sanctioned by the legislative or executive power. But this is not always true because unsanctioned meetings could be organized, ruled and disciplined. It should be said that human behaviour in a crowd is changeable and is under the influence of sudden or specially prepared circumstances. At any point it can start being irrational.

From the psychological point of view, crowd is a mass of people which is not originally organized or lost organisation, which does not have an aim or lost the goal and which is in the emotionally excited state.

Gustav Lebon is the founder of social psychology. His work “Psychology of Crowd” is the basis of examinations of human crowd's behaviour. A. Rand and V.M. Behterev also dealt with this problem. G. Spencer supposed that the crowd represents the arithmetic sum or average arithmetic of the individual characters of gathered people. The crowd has a special universal method for people to be involved in it. Each person “acquires” power because of the large number of the gathered people. G. Lebon coined this phenomenon to hypnosis and showed connection between involvement in a crowd and collective unconscious. This idea was further developed by S. Freud.

Questions:

1) Are there different opinions about the phenomenon of a crowd?

a) Yes, there are politic and psychological points of view

b) Yes, there are ideas in police, Parliament and schools

c) No, the notion of crowd is one and the same for different disciplines

2) What is the definition of crowd in politics?

a) crowd is a protest action with a large number of people included

b) crowd is a meeting of unorganized, drunken people

c) crowd is a meeting of protest which is not sanctioned by the administration

3) Are unsanctioned meetings always a crowd?

a) Yes, they are always crowds

b) No, they are always disciplined

c) No, they can be organized

4) What can be said about human behaviour in a crowd?

a) it is changeable under the circumstances

b) it is always irrational

c) it is often ruled by the leaders

5) What is a crowd from psychological point of view?

a) protesting people in the emotionally excited state

b) non-organized, aimless people in an excited state

c) emotionally excited people whose aim is to change some situation

6) Who is Gustav Lebon?

a) the founder of sociological psychology

b) the creator of sociographic psychology

c) the pioneer of the social psychology

7) What is the title of Lebon's book?

a) Psychology of a Crowd

b) Psychology of Crowd

c) Social Psychology of Crowd

8) Who also worked in the field of social psychology?

a) A. Rand, V.M. Behterev, G. Spencer

b) A. Rand, B.M. Behterev, G. Spencer

c) A. Rand. V.M. Behterev, J. Spencer

9) What are G. Spencer's ideas about a crowd?

a) average arithmetic of individual characters forms the hyper-crowd

b) individual characters are not simply summed to form a crowd's character

c) gathered people's characters form an arithmetic sum of crowd's character

10) What do people feel in a crowd?

a) self-power due to a large mass of people

b) consciousness because of numerous gathered people

c) aggression towards other people in a crowd

11) What is the method for involving people into the crowd?

a) due to illusions

b) a kind of hypnosis

c) thanks to human ideas

12) Who further developed the notion of collective unconscious?

a) Gustav Lebon

b) Alexander Block

c) Sigmund Freud

Task 16. Read the text and say whether the statements are true or false. Correct false statements:

Crowd is a universal way to average people. In a crowd highly intellectual people go down and people with highly organized psychology degrade. Crowd, according to G. Lebon, is a human organisation having special features which do not coincide with the sum of individual features, it is a social system.

In the crowd there are no individuals, personal feelings or thoughts, they are leveled. The crowd has a single soul which is reflected in the law of mental singularity of a crowd.

Members of crowd should not be necessarily at one place. The only principle for them is to have the same thoughts and feelings. The crowd can coincide with the whole nation or several persons. On the other hand, even one hundred people could not be a crowd if they do not share the same ideas.

Collective soul of the crowd is unconscious, consciousness separates it back into individuals. Unconsciousness presupposes that crowd is simple, not clever though it can comprise intelligent and smart people. In the crowd, individual, due to a great number of people, acquires the feeling of power but loses the sense of responsibility.

In the crowd people “transfer” their feelings, thoughts and actions to each other through the mechanism of hypnosis. It results in rejecting of individual consciousness and people are able to do any thing. People in a crowd resemble ancient people, they are prone to aggression, violence, enthusiasm, heroism, though as separate persons they are quite conscious and aware of their actions and would never do the things they did being a part of a crowd.

Statements:

1) In a crowd people receive extraordinary intellectual abilities.

2) Crowd makes people with high psychology be average.

3) A crowd can not be called a social system.

4) Crowd has special features which comprise the sum of individual features.

5) There is a law concerning mental plurality of a crowd.

6) The main rule for people to be a crowd is to be concentrated in one and the same place.

7) A crowd is characterized by sharing the same ideas.

8) The crowd consists of several people: from ten to one hundred.

9) The crowd is ruled by consciousness and unconscious separates the crowd.

10) If the crowd includes clever people then we can call such a crowd clever.

11) The crowd is anonymous that means nobody is responsible for its actions.

12) In the crowd a person feels powerful thanks to his individual features of character and leadership.

13) In the crowd people exchange ideas, feelings and thoughts through the process of hypnosis.

14) Individuals in the crowd are hard to rule.

15) Individuals in the crowd do the same things which they do in everyday life.

Task 17. Read abstracts and put proper words in the blanks:

Types of crowds

a) Mixed crowd consists of individuals of different professions, education, level of … (1), age, etc. Main factor gathering such a crowd … (2) would be race. Thus a crowd comprising individuals of one race and … (3) crowd would have different specific features.

Unified crowd can have several … (4) of organisation, for example, sects and castes. A sect includes people of various professions, social development and age on the basis of the same … (5) or political beliefs. Caste is the highest type of crowd organisation. It consists of individuals of one and the … (6) profession which influences the education and social level. One more type of crowd organisation is a … (7). It is formed on the … (8) of the same social position, way of life, education and interests. Class can … (9) people of different professions and religions. A class can be bourgeoisie, agricultural, etc.

Words: integrate, same, intellect, levels, class, together, religious, basis, multiracional.

b) A crowd can be active and passive. Passive … (1) of a crowd is characterised by the absence of stimulus or integrating … (2). Passive crowd is a sudden … (3) of people which is fast to gather and fast to … (4). Emotional component in such a crowd is not … (5) completely and reflects itself in human interest.

Active crowd has a completely formed … (6). One of the most … (7) types of crowds is an aggressive crowd. It tries to solve its problems in a violent way. It loses conscious and rational basis of its … (8).

Saving crowd can become panic when the supply of safety devices is … (9) or uncertain.

A crowd may be marauder when people are prone to … (10), theft if the goods suddenly became free under different circumstances.

Words: limited, idea, formed, dangerous, burglary, type, emotional element, gathering, actions, separate.

Unit VII. Age Psychology

Task 1. Look through these groups of words. Decide which group is connected with a happy child, a happy parent and unhappy, problem child, unhappy, difficult parent:

a) kind-hearted, good-natured, loving, friendly, affectionate, confident, balanced, secure, getting along with others, gregarious, sociable, communicative, outgoing, unselfish, hard-working, industrious, self-disciplined, self-possessed, alert, motivated, conscientious, active, persevering, enthusiastic, polite, courteous, considerate, thoughtful, helpful, able to cope with difficulties and problems.

b) obedient, prone to obey, submissive, disciplined, repressed, depressed, distressed, mixed-up, confused, frustrated, disturbed, neglected, self-centered, unsociable, lonely, timid, shy, fearful, sulky, indifferent, impersonal, listless, irresponsive, insensitive, hurt, humiliated, stubborn, uninterested, unmotivated, dull, inactive, bored, unable to cope with difficulties, irritable, annoyed, anxious, restless, naughty, willful, inconsistent, impulsive, undisciplined, unruly, misbehaving, disobedient, resentful, arrogant, insolent, impudent, inconsiderate, intolerant, disrespectful, unrestrained, destructive, belligerent, rude, rough, coarse, offensive, wrong-doing, delinquent.

c) impulsive, indulging, pampering, babying, unreasonable, selfish, self-indulging, self-interested, self-willed, willful, inconsistent, partial, sentimental, permissive, loveless, indifferent, impersonal, insensitive, disapproving, unjust, unfair, impatient, intolerant, insensible, unwise, nagging, fussy, cold, hard, harsh, cruel, bullying, aggressive, destructive, violent, repressing, demanding, restraining, moralizing, uncompromising, tough.

d) loving, caring, affectionate, kind, kind-hearted, good-natured, friendly, approving, reassuring, responsive, thoughtful, considerate, understanding, sensitive, sympathetic, sensible, reasonable, self-controlled, self-restrained, patient, tolerant, open, outgoing, firm, consistent, just.

Task 2. Read and translate the text:

Age Psychology

Age psychology is a serious science consisting of several branches: children's psychology, pre-school children's psychology, gerontopsychology, etc. Age psychology studies laws of normal individual's mental development. Age psychology examines the current state of mental development, but at the same time it tries to forecast person's whole life cycle.

The problems of age psychology start when two people of different ages meet. The first person is an adult who wants to receive knowledge about laws and rules of psychological development. The second individual could be a child, a grown up of the same age or somebody who is older. All these people would be called subjects or examinees. The difference in age level can bring the problem of misunderstanding and it is going even worse when the scientist deals with a child.

There are some techniques which help to examine the subjects in age psychology. Thus, there is experimental genetic method, clinic examination, laboratory experiment and many others. They divide the whole life cycle into separate stages which are easier to investigate and formulate laws of people's progress.

Theoretical importance in age psychology presupposes the formulation of the problem, laws of its development as a specific phenomenon in social life. The scientist should work over the value and truthfulness of the received knowledge. Practical application assumes the practical use of the received knowledge. For example, it is useful in education organisation of differently aged people or in testing whether an individual is ready for an activity, e.g. choice of profession, school education, family life, etc.

The subject of age psychology includes changes in human psyche and behaviour while going from one age level to another. These changes could be:

- quantitative, e.g. enlargement of memory volume, number of words used;

- evolutionary, which are developing in slow, gradual way;

- qualitative, e.g. using more complex grammar constructions in speech, changing from situational speech to monologues, from spontaneous to purposeful attention;

- revolutionary, deeper, which are fast to occur, a jump in development, appearing on the borders of age periods;

- situational, which are linked with social sphere and its influence on the child, they are uncertain and need to be worked on.

Another subject of age psychology is psychological age. It is a specific period of psychological development, which is characterized by the appearance of new features prepared by the previous psychological development. Psychological age may not coincide with the chronological age. Age period has certain boundaries but they can be changed as individuals develop in different speed.

Task 3. Translate the words into Russian:

1) age psychology; 2) current state; 3) adult; 4) problem of misunderstanding; 5) genetic method; 6) practical application; 7) memory volume; 8) spontaneous attention; 9) to be linked with.

Task 4. In the text “Age psychology” find English equivalents to the following Russian word and word combinations:

1) геронто-психология; 2) прогнозировать события жизненного цикла; 3) испытуемый; 4) иметь дело с; 5) предполагать; 6) люди разных возрастов; 7) эволюционные изменения; 8) произвольное внимание; 9) психологический возраст.

Task 5. In the text “Age psychology” find synonyms to the following words:

1) to include; 2) old people's psychology; 3) examinee; 4) to assume; 5) making larger; 6) to be connected to; 7) boundary.

Task 6. In the text “Age psychology” find antonyms to the following words:

1) funny; 2) abnormal; 3) part; 4) better; 5) more difficult; 6) certain; 7) following, next; 8) making smaller; 9) usual.

Task 7. Answer the questions:

1) What are the branches of age psychology?

2) Can psychology forecast person's life cycle?

3) Who are the subjects in age psychology?

4) What can cause the problem of misunderstanding?

5) What are the methods of examination in age psychology?

6) Why do the methods of age psychology separate the life cycle into stages?

7) What is practical application?

8) What are the changes in psyche and behaviour while going from one age level to another?

Task 8. Say whether the statements are true or false. Correct false statements:

1) Age psychology studies physical laws of energy.

2) The problems of age psychology start when three people meet.

3) Age psychology deals with problems of aged people.

4) Methods of age psychology include clinic examination.

5) Methods of age psychology help to study human life as a whole.

6) Theoretical importance means usage of scientific methods in everyday life.

7) Revolutionary changes in psyche development mean that they are slow to occur and are prepared gradually.

8) Situational changes are certain and last forever.

9) Psychological age equals a chronological age.

10) Age period has uncertain borders but the majority of people fall into its limits.

Task 9. In the text “Age psychology” find sentences with the word “attention”. Translate it into Russian. Study the possible variants of meaning of this word and phrases with it:

1) attention – внимание, внимательность; забота, заботливость; уход (за больным и т.п.); уход (за машиной); положение «смирно»

2) to attract (to draw, to call) somebody's attention to something – обращать чье-либо внимание на что-либо

3) to pay attention to – обращать внимание на …

4) to compel attention – приковывать внимание

5) to slip somebody's attention – ускользнуть от чьего-либо внимания

6) to show much attention to somebody – проявлять заботу о ком-либо

7) to pay attentions to – ухаживать за

8) to stand at attention – стоять в положении «смирно»

9) attentive – внимательный, заботливый; вежливый, предупредительный

10) attentively – внимательно

11) inattentive – невнимательный

Task 10. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the words and phrases from task nine:

1) I'd like to attract your attention to the information written in small letters, it is important.

2) The book in the show-window compelled my attention and I went in the book shop.

3) I am all attention.

4) Parents showed much attention to their little son.

5) Soldiers should stand at attention when they are ordered to do so.

6) Read the text attentively and render it into Hungarian.

7) It is so inattentive of you to forget about her birthday party.

8) Your car is repaired. You can take it. Try to be more attentive to your automobile and it won't break so often.

Task 11. Translate the words and phrases in brackets into English to make the sentences complete:

1) Our professor insisted on (обратить наше внимание) to the colour of the sunset. We should remember it and draw it properly.

2) Exception from the rule (ускользнуло от моего внимания) and I've made a mistake in my dictation.

3) – I'm going to tell the truth about the accident. – (Я весь внимание).

4) (Смирно!) The general is in our regiment.

5) Your daughter is very (внимательная) at our lessons.

6) You are so (невнимательный). You've missed the proper turn to the airport. Now, we'll have to go for about fifty kilometers to turn back.

Task 12. Read the text “Criteria of age periods” and choose right words from the brackets:

Criteria of Age Periods

Age psychology defines … (criteria, criterion, criterions) of age periods as depended on historical, social, economical aspects of … (bringing, bringing up, bring up) and development. They are connected to different activity … (type, kind, types). These criteria are concerned with age … (physiology, phisiology, phisyology) and progress of psychological functions which influence … (children', childrens's, children's) development and education principles.

L.S. Vygotsky suggested psychological new … (features, fitures, futures) being criteria for age periods. These new features … (characterizes, are characterize, characterize) a certain age period. He distinguished … (stable, stables, unstable) and unstable periods of development. Much … (attentive, attention, attentively) was paid to crisis periods which are times … (what, who, when) qualitative changes in psychological functions occur. These periods are … (describe, described, description) as significant changes in children's … (individualitys, individualites, individualities). According to L.S. Vygotsky, the change of age periods has a … (revolt, revolutionary, revolution) character.

… (according, including, accord) to A.N. Leontjev, criteria of age periods are main kinds of activities typical … (to, of, with) certain age. Main activity development influences the … (significanter, significantest, most significant) changes in children's psychological processes and features at a certain age stage. The fact is, that … (every, everything, everybody) new generation, as well as a single person of this generation, comes to the world of stated … (live, lives, life) conditions. These conditions determine the possible content of an activity.

Task 13. Read an abstract and write down right words into the blanks. Choose the variant from the given words:

Personal age periods depend on conditions of development, specific features of … (1) structures which determine human progress and individual's inner position defining development on later stages of … (2). Each age period has its own social situation, leading psychological … (3) and main type of activity. Outer social conditions and inner conditions of higher psychological functions development are … (4) and define main route of individual's progress.

Each age stage has selective sensitivity and outer conditions … (5). L.S. Vygotsky drew much attention to sensitive periods as education started earlier than the … (6) stage requires would not be effective.

Objective, historically based human reality … (7) human beings on each stage of ontogenesis. It reflects the psychological functions which were developed on … (8) stages of progress. It should be noted, that a child borrows only … (9) information and rejects everything which is beyond his comprehension.

Words: previous, functions, sensitive, suitable, morphological, interrelated, influences, ontogenesis, receptivity.

Task 14. In the text “Age psychology” find a sentence with the word “application”, translate it into Russian. Form words of different parts of speech from this root word. Write down your own sentences with these words. Look through the vocabulary notes and check yourself:

1) appliance – приспособление прибор (domestic electric appliances – бытовые электроприборы); применение; appliance load – (эл.) бытовая нагрузка.

2) applicable – применимый, пригодный, подходящий (to).

3) applicant – претендент, кандидат, проситель.

4) application – заявление, прошение (to put in an application – подать заявление); прикладывание (горчичника, пластыря и т.п.); употребление (лекарства); применение, применимость; прилежание, рвение, старание (application to work – рвение на работе).

5) application blank (application form) – анкета, поступающего на работу.

6) applied – прикладной.

7) to apply – обращаться (for – за работой, помощью, справкой, разрешением и т.п.; to – к кому-либо); касаться, относиться, быть приемлемым; применять, употреблять (to apply breaks – тормозить); прикладывать; заниматься чем-либо, направлять свое внимание на что-либо.

Task 15. Translate the sentences from English into Russian. Pay attention to the words and phrases from task fourteen:

1) What are domestic electric appliances typical of American and British families?

2) The explosion theory can be applicable to the appearance of our universe.

3) Every applicant to a high administrative position in our country should be honest.

4) Write everything down in your application form. Hand it in and wait for our call.

5) This rule applies to all.

6) Before application of the medicine you should consult your doctor.

7) Do not apply this cracker indoors.

8) Do not apply acceleration on a slippery road.

Task 16. Read the sentences, translate the Russian words in brackets into English. Pay attention to the words from task fourteen:

1) Computer is a complex (прибор).

2) Intuition could not be (применима) in this case. You should know the physical rules for sure. You should not guess.

3) You should put in an (заявление) in time for the organisation committee to register it.

4) (Прикладная) psychology is much more important in ordinary life than fundamental theoretic science.

5) If your car skids you should not (тормозить) in a harsh way.

6) (Обратитесь) for information about holidays to the Dean's office.

7) (Употребление) of these medicines can cause dangerous side effects.

Task 17. Translate the sentences into English, pay attention to the word “application” and its derivatives:

1) Бытовая нагрузка на электрические сети не должна превышать норму.

2) Огромное количество абитуриентов каждую весну заполняет московские высшие учебные заведения. И только половина из них оседает в Москве, другие поступают в региональные ВУЗы.

3) Отличительной чертой Джека было особое рвение на работе. Каждое порученное дело он старался закончить как можно быстрее и качественней.

4) Приложите горчичник, подержите его 10-15 минут, и скоро все как рукой снимет.

5) Может ли теория эволюции Дарвина быть применима в психологии?

6) Постоянное употребление этого лекарственного препарата может вызвать привыкание.

7) Применение логарифмических линеек и таблиц Брадиса давно ушло в прошлое. Сейчас со всеми этими функциями легко и быстро справляется калькулятор.

Task 18. Read the text “Smart Moves” and choose the best variant of answers to the questions:

Smart Moves (by S. Brink)

New research suggests that folks from 8 to 80 can shape up their brains with aerobic exercise.

It won't come as a revelation to fitness buffs that aerobic conditioning does more than raise the heart rate: it lifts the spirits and builds self-esteem too. But many of the country's foremost brain researchers who gathered in Chicago two weeks ago for a first-of-its-kind symposium on the link between movement and learning, believe that something more complicated is happening, too. In much the same way that exercise shapes up bones, muscles, heart and lungs, they suggest, it also strengthens the basal ganglia, cerebellum and corpus callosum – deep innards of the brain.

No amount of exercise, of course, will make an Arnold Schwarzenegger out of a 98-pound weakling; nor can it make an Einstein out of an average comprehender. But the evidence is mounting that each person's capacity to master new and remember old information is improved by biologic changes in the brain brought on by aerobic conditioning. Exercise not only fuels the brain with a better blood supply but it feeds brain cells with a heartier supply of natural substances, known as neurotrophins, that enhance their growth. Add to the aerobics a series of complex coordinated movements like dance steps or basketball moves, and the brain produces a greater number of connections between its neurons. That suggests a brain better able to process all kinds of information.

A slower slowdown. Formal studies on the mental benefits of exercise in young people have yet to be conducted; the best supporting evidence to date comes from the other end of the age spectrum. Numerous studies of older people have shown that exercise can slow the deterioration of an aging brain and sharpen mental function.

The possibility of turbo-charged learning provides one more compelling reason for parents to put their offspring on an aerobic regimen. Ideally, kids in grades 1 through 12 should get at least a daily 30-minute physical education class, but only 36 percent do, according to the President's Council on Physical Fitness and Sports. That's one reason why 40 percent of children as young as 5 already exhibit at least one heart disease risk factor such as obesity or elevated cholesterol. The new research argues for activities like soccer or tennis that add a mental component to the aerobic conditioning.

Like kids, adults don't need another reason for exercise: the evidence in favor of three workouts a week – and more is better – is clear. A study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association, for example, showed that the equivalent of walking 4 to 5 miles an hour for 45 minutes five times a week appears to prolong life. Scientists reported in JAMA that it's never too late to start – even people 60 and older who became fit over a period of 5 years were 44 percent less likely to die of any cause during the five years than their unfit peers.

Until the relationship between physical skill and flat-out brain work is more fully understood, you will probably have to take on faith that your movements are influencing your ability to learn or remember (from US News, 1995).

Questions:

1) What is an additional effect of aerobics?

a) it lifts the spirits

b) it raises the heart rate

c) it creates health problems

2) When and where was a symposium on the connection between movement and learning?

a) two weeks ahead in Detroit

b) two weeks ago in Chicago

c) two years ago in Chicago

3) Does the movement sharpen the muscles and the brain?

a) Yes, but it strengthens the body and does not sharpen the brain

b) Yes, it sharpens the brain but not the body

c) Yes, it strengthens the body and the brain

4) What can happen to a 98-pound weakling through aerobics?

a) he will be an Arnold Schwarzenegger

b) he will be helped to master new and remember old information

c) he will be an Einstein

5) What can make brain produce more connections between its neurons?

a) good food

b) a lot of rest

c) coordinated movements and exercises

6) Are the studies on mental changes via exercise on young people completed?

a) No, they are not finished. They are in full way.

b) No, they are not finished but they are paused.

c) Yes, they are finished. Everything is proved and known now.

7) What can exercises do to older people?

a) they can stop deterioration of aging brain

b) they can slow down the deterioration of mental activities

c) they can bring good mood

8) Why do parents put their children on aerobic regimen?

a) to develop body and sharpen the brain

b) to develop body movements

c) to make them busy

9) What are the risk factors of heart disease in children?

a) low cholesterol

b) too much movement

c) obesity and elevated cholesterol

10) For how long should adults exercise according to scientists?

a) 45 minutes five times a week

b) three workouts a week

c) the more the better

11) What is JAMA?

a) Journal of the American Medical Association

b) Jamaica

c) a name of the NASA space project

Task 19. Render the text into English:

Женевская школа генетической психологии – направление в изучении психического развития ребенка, созданное Ж. Пиаже. В центре находятся проблемы происхождения и развития интеллекта – формирования фундаментальных понятий, особенностей детской логики, сходства и различия психики ребенка и взрослого, переходов от одних форм мыслительной деятельности к другим.

Для анализа этих проблем был разработан специальный метод психологического исследования – метод клинической беседы, в которой изучаются не внешние признаки явления, а процессы, приводящие к их возникновению. Применение этого метода позволило обнаружить новые психологические феномены, в частности феномен эгоцентризма ребенка: на всех уровнях развитие интеллекта ребенка осуществляется за счет перехода от эгоцентризма через децентрацию к более объективной умственной позиции.

Структуры интеллекта формируются благодаря развитию действия. У ребенка до 2 лет внешние материальные действия, осуществляются развернуто и последовательно, при постоянном повторении схематизируются. В дошкольном возрасте они с помощью символических средств (имитация, игра, умственный образ, рисунок, речь) переносятся во внутренний план, где происходит их сокращение и координация с другими действиями. А в младшем школьном возрасте они превращаются в операции. Таким образом, аналог операций на сенсомоторном уровне, конкретные и формальные операции представляют собой три фундаментальные структуры интеллекта, которые определяют весь ход психического развития.

В развитии детского мышления находят отражение общебиологические способы жизнедеятельности организма (ассимиляция, аккомодация, адаптация). Изучение процессов обучения подвели представителей Женевской школы к тому выводу, что благодаря обучению можно ускорить усвоение понятий, но это всегда зависит от исходного уровня развития.

Unit VIII. Psycholinguistics

Task 1. Read and translate the text “Psycholinguistics”:

Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use and understand language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, mainly due to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There is a number of sub-disciplines; for example, as non-invasive techniques for study neurological working of the brain became widespread, neurolinguistics has become a field of its own.

Psycholinguistics covers cognitive processes that make possible generating a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as processes that make possible understanding utterances, words, texts, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn a language.

Theories on language working in human mind attempt to account for how people associate meaning with the sounds (or signs) of language and how syntax is used, i.e. how people manage to put words in the proper order to produce and understand the strings of words which are called sentences. The first is the least controversial and is generally held to be an area in which animal and human communication have something in common.

There are essentially two schools of thought as to how people manage to create syntactic sentences: (1) syntax is an evolutionary product of increased human intelligence over time and social factors that encouraged the development of spoken language; (2) language exists because humans possess an innate ability, an access to what has been called a universal grammar. This point of view says that human ability for syntax is “hard-wired” in the brain.

The first view was prevalent until 1960 and is well represented in mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and empiricist Rudolf Carnap. The school of behaviorism put forth the point of view that language is behaviour shaped by conditioned response. The second point of view have begun with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959 on the pages of the journal Language. That review started what has been termed the cognitive revolution in psychology.

Much methodology in psycholinguistics takes the form of behavioral experiments. In these types of studies subjects are presented with some form of linguistic input and asked to perform a task (e.g. make a judgement, reproduce the stimulus, read a visually presented word aloud). Reaction times (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance.

Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such a drastic surgery. If an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research.

Computational modeling, e.g. the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues, is a newer methodology. It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programmes. Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable.

More recently, eye-tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Since eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented with linguistic input (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Task 2. Translate the words and word combinations into Russian:

1) neurobiological factors; 2) sub-discipline; 3) to understand utterances; 4) the least controversial; 5) universal grammar; 6) empiricist; 7) proportion of correct responses; 8) two hemispheres of the brain; 9) computational modeling; 10) eye movements.

Task 3. In the text “Psycholinguistics” find English equivalents to the following Russian words and phrases:

1) недостаток связующих данных; 2) порождать грамматически правильное, наполненное смыслом предложение; 3) ассоциировать значение со звуками; 4) продукт эволюции; 5) менталистская теория; 6) время реакции; 7) предпочитаемый способ; 8) радикальная хирургия; 9) дискурсивный анализ.

Task 4. In the text “Psycholinguistics” find synonyms to the following words:

1) psychology of language; 2) because of, thanks to; 3) to produce; 4) to study; 5) chain; 6) to do a task; 7) answer; 8) understanding.

Task 5. In the text “Psycholinguistics” find antonyms to the following words:

1) old; 2) impossible; 3) to decrease; 4) theorist; 5) health; 6) non-invasive techniques; 7) useless; 8) implicit; 9) reliable.

Task 6. Match words and their definitions:

Task 7. Answer the questions:

1) What does psycholinguistics study?

2) Data of what sciences does the psycholinguistics use?

3) What does developmental psycholinguistics examine?

4) What is syntax?

5) What are the schools of thought dealing with syntactic structures in the language?

6) When was the evolutionary view on syntax famous?

7) Who were the followers of evolutionary theory of syntax?

8) Who was the founder of universal grammar approach?

9) What are the methods used in psycholinguistics?

10) How can you describe a computational modeling?

Task 8. Say whether the following statements are true or false, correct the false statements:

1) Initial steps in psycholinguistics were theoretically based.

2) Psycholinguistics is a single science and it does not have any sub-disciplines.

3) The subject of psycholinguistics does not include the process of understanding texts.

4) Human and animal communication have some common features.

5) A revolutionary theory of syntax says that grammar was created through increased human intelligence and social factors.

6) A universal grammar presupposes special syntax structures in the brain.

7) Noam Chomsky criticized R. Carnap's book.

8) B.F. Skinner was the father of cognitive revolution in psychology.

9) The majority of psycholinguistic methods came from physiology.

10) Nowadays language researchers prefer to use brain surgery in their experiments.

11) Eye tracking is done in connection to understanding of bird languages.

Task 9. Read an abstract and choose the best variants of answers to the questions:

Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary science and is studied by people in a variety of fields, such as psychology, cognitive science. There are subdivisions within psycholinguistics that are based on the components making up human language.

Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds.

Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation).

Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined together to form sentences.

Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where as syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences.

Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.

The study of word recognition and reading examines the process involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from the patterns in printed text.

Developmental psycholinguistics studies infants' and children's ability to learn a language, usually with experimental or at least quantitative methods (as opposed to naturalistic observations such as those made by Jean Piaget in his research on children's development) (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Questions:

1) Are there any sub-divisions in psycholinguistics?

a) Yes, they are based on the components that make up language

b) Yes, they are based on the components of animal communication

c) No, there are no sub-divisions in psycholinguistics

2) What are the phonetics and phonology concerned with in linguistics?

a) study of brain processing and understanding of sounds

b) study of intonation in speech

c) study of speech sounds and intonation

3) What discipline examines word formation?

a) syntax

b) morphology

c) semantics

4) Which of the psycholinguistic sub-disciplines study the actual meaning of the sentence?

a) semantics

b) syntax

c) grammar

5) What is pragmatics?

a) it is concerned with the role of author's intentions in the written text

b) it deals with the role of context in the interpretations of meaning

c) it tackles the problem of intonation in a foreign language

6) What are psychology related areas in psycholinguistics?

a) a study of extraction of actual meaning from different forms of language activities

b) a study of children's ability to learn foreign languages

c) a study of word recognition and meaning of the text and developmental psycholinguistics

7) Are the methods proposed by Jean Piaget used in developmental psycholinguistics?

a) No, they are not. This science uses experimental and quantitative methods

b) No, they are not. This discipline makes use of naturalistic observations and the method of games

c) Yes, they are used very often

Task 10. Read an abstract and say whether these statements are true or false, correct false statements:

The field of psycholinguistics has been defined by reactions to N. Chomsky, pro and cons. The pro view still holds that human ability to use syntax is qualitatively different from any sort of animal communication. That ability might have resulted from a favourable mutation (extremely unlikely) or (more likely) from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. That is, precise syntax might, indeed, serve group needs; better linguistic expression might produce more cohesion, cooperation, and potential for survival, but precise syntax can only have developed from rudimentary – or no – syntax, which would have had no survival value and, thus, would not have evolved at all. Thus, one looks for other skills, the characteristic of which might have later been useful for syntax. In the terminology of modern evolutionary biology, these skills would be “pre-adapted” for syntax. Just what those skills might have been is the focus of recent research – or, at least, speculation.

The con view still holds that language – including syntax – is an outgrowth of hundreds of thousands years of increasing intelligence and tens of thousands years of human interaction. From that view, syntax in language gradually increased group cohesion and potential for survival. Language is a cultural artifact. This view challenges the “innate” view as scientifically unfalsifiable; it can not be tested; the fact that a particular, conceivable syntactic structure does not exist in any of the world's finite repertoire of languages is an interesting observation, but it is not proof of a genetic constraint on possible forms nor does it prove that such forms could not exist or could not be learned.

Contemporary theorists, besides N. Chomsky, working in the field of theories of psycholinguistics include George Lakoff, Steven Pinker, and Michael Tomasello (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Statements:

1) N. Chomsky's view on appearing of syntax is well-rooted in psycholinguistics.

2) The pro ideas say that human syntax is similar to animal communication.

3) The ability to use syntax was caused by a favourable mutation.

4) According to N. Chomsky, precise syntax could not serve group needs as it was used only in the inner speech.

5) Precise syntax has developed from rudimentary syntax which did not survive.

6) Scientists try to find some “post-adapted” skills that can lead to the use of syntax.

7) The con ideas insist that syntax has an evolutionary character.

8) According to pro view syntax helped to increase group cohesion and potential for survival.

9) The evolutionary view on syntax can be tested and proved in modern laboratories.

10) Contemporary theorists in the field of psycholinguistics are N. Chomsky and L.S. Vygotsky.

Task 11. Read an abstract and put proper words from the brackets into the blanks:

Psycholinguistics as an … (independent, undependent, irdependent) discipline was born in 1953 when there was an inter-university seminar in Indiana … (Johns, University, State) in the USA. It was organized by the US Linguistics and Psychology Committee headed by … (psychologist, psychologysts, psychologists) Charles Osgood and John Carrol and semiotic Thomas Sibeoc. This seminar resulted in … (publishing, publish, publishment) of “Psycholinguistics: A Survey on Theory and Research Problems” which covered main theoretic basis of the new science and … (unimportant, importance, important) branches of experimental research.

Theoretical foundations for the first psycholinguistic … (shool, school, chool) was C. Shennon's mathematic connection theory, American descriptive linguistics and … (new behaviorism, neo-behaviorism, anew behaviorism) in psychology.

First steps of psycholinguistics were ruled … (by, on, through) behavioral principles. Thus, the object of study was a … (separated, some, separate) word, the subject dealt with connections between words in human verbal … (memorial, memory, member), analysis was based on stimulus-response scheme and associative link between them, … (methodology, maths, member) used associative experiment. The new was not in the area of ideas, which already … (investigate, created, existed) in psychology, but it was in new methodological schemes of analysis of human … (communication, community, communicative) which appeared in information theory and computer science.

Task 12. Read an abstract and put right words into the blanks. Take the words from the given list:

Psycholinguistics of the second … (1) is associated with psychologist J. Miller and linguist N. Chomsky. Their transformational psycholinguistics is mentalistic. It … (2) the process of learning and using formal language structures. It also formulates the laws of language forms of speaker's … (3). They introduce the notion of superficial and deep levels of utterance generation. Scientists … (4) between communicative and non-communicative behaviour. Specific status of communicative behaviour is defined by the fact that … (5), a person should have pre-language knowledge, some mental … (6) which are cognitive instruments to learn a language. The process of learning a language is … (7) as mastering the abstract grammar structures and rules of their formation. These structures are considered to be … (8) and thus, learning a language is their actualization. … (9) suggested the rules of syntactic structures formation, so called generative grammar. He identified adults' language ability with the system of generating sentences. N. Chomsky's psycholinguistics is … (10). It limits psychological processes to realization of language structures in … (11).

Words: anti-psychological, examines, structures, content intentions, speech, generation, to master it, understood, inborn, differentiate, N. Chomsky.

Task 13. Translate an abstract into English:

Психолингвистика как теория речевой деятельности возникла в СССР в середине 60-х годов 20 века на базе деятельностного подхода к психике. Данный подход развивался с середины 1930-х годов в рамках психологической школы Л.С. Выготского и был связан с именами таких психологов, как А.Н. Леонтьев, А.С. Лурия, С.Л. Рубинштейн, М.Я. Басов и др. Основы теории речевой деятельности были сформулированы в работах А.А. Леонтьева. Основная черта теории речевой деятельности – это ее психологическая ориентация, в ней речь трактуется как активная и целенаправленная речевая деятельность. Единицей анализа является элементарное речевое действие и речевая операция. Эта единица должна нести в себе все основные признаки деятельности.

В современной отечественной психолингвистике используются прямые и косвенные методы экспериментального исследования, заимствованные у психологии и оригинальные. Например, метод семантического дифференциала Ч. Осгуда, метод семантического интеграла В.И. Батова и Ю.А. Сорокина, метод интент анализа Т.Н. Ушаковой и др. Наиболее распространенными в настоящее время являются различные методики ассоциативного эксперимента. Наряду с экспериментальными методами в психолингвистике используется наблюдение (и самонаблюдение), формирующие методы (в исследованиях овладения родным и иностранным языком), метод лингвистического эксперимента.

Task 14. Look through the words and correct mistakes:

1) neirobiological factors; 2) informashion theory; 3) nonivasive tehnicues; 4) grammartical stractures; 5) sintactic rules; 6) evolutinative product; 7) univesal gramar; 8) to be reprezented; 9) reaktion taim; 10) hemisferes of the brane.

Task 15. Compose sentences from the given words:

1) Pragmatics … and speakers' intentions, of meaning, examines, in the interpretation, role of the context.

2) Followers … conditioned response, of syntax, is shaped by, of the evolutionary theory, think that language.

3) The corpus callosum … together, which link the two hemispheres, is the bundle of nerves, of the brain.

4) Positron emission … used to make, is a non-invasive technique, brain imaging, tomography.

5) There is … called aphasia, language deficits, a broad field, that deals with.

Task 16. Match the beginnings of the words with their endings:

a) neuro, wide, inter, relation, psycho, out, re, on.

b) ships, growth, science, linguistics, disciplinary, spread, produce, line.

Task 17. Match scientists' names with their surnames. Say what these scientists are famous for:

Task 18. Read abstracts and translate Russian words in brackets into English:

a) The first view on appearance of syntax claims that (сложные синтаксические функции) such as recursion are beyond even the potential abilities of the most (умных) and social non-humans. Recursion includes the use of (относительных местоимений) to refer back to earlier parts of a sentence. For example, “The girl whose car is blocking my view of the tree that I planted last year is my friend”. The innate view (заявляет) that the ability to use syntax like that would not exist without an innate concept that contains the underpinnings for the (грамматических правил) that produce recursion. Children acquiring a language, thus, have a vast search space to explore among (возможных) human grammars, setting, logic, on the languages spoken or signed in their own (сообщество) of speakers. Such syntax is, (согласно) the second point of view, something that defines language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.

b) Tasks in psycholinguistics might include, for example, asking the subject to (конвертировать, перевести) nouns into verbs, e.g. “book” suggests “to write”, “water” suggests “to drink” and so on. Another (эксперимент) might present an active sentence such as “Bob threw the ball to Bill” and a (страдательный эквивалент), “The ball was thrown to Bill by Bob” and then ask the question, “Who threw the ball?” We might (сделать вывод) that active sentences are processed more easily, and faster than passive sentences. (Более интересно) we might also find out that some people are (не могут) to understand passive sentences; we might then make some tentative steps towards (понимание) certain types of language deficits, generally grouped under the (общим термином) aphasia.

Unit IX. Ethnopsychology

Task 1. Read and translate the text “Ethnopsychology”:

Ethnopsychology

Ethnospychology is an interdisciplinary branch of knowledge studying ethnocultural features of peoples' mentality, psychological characteristics of ethnoses and psychological aspects of interethnic relations.

The term “ethnopsychology” is not a single one denoting this sphere. There are different titles, for example, peoples' psychology, psychological anthropology, cross-cultural psychology and many others. As an interdisciplinary science ethnopsychology has close links with sociology, linguistics, biology, ecology, ethnography, social and cultural anthropology, psychology, philosophy, history, politics, etc.

The object of the science is represented by the notions of nations, nationalities, ethnoses. The subject covers features of behaviour, emotional reactions, mentalities, character, national consciousness and ethnic stereotypes.

Research methods consist of comparison, observation, experiment, conversation and investigation of activity products. Comparative method allows to use analytical comparative models to study mental ethnic processes, to classify and group them according to certain principles and criteria. Observation came to ethnopsychology from behaviorism. It is the study of mentality external displays in different ethnic groups in natural living conditions. Observation should be purposeful, regular and should follow the principle of non-interference. Experiment is an active method. An experimenter creates necessary conditions for activation of the process he is interested in. Mental features are established after repeated experiments under identical conditions. An experiment can be laboratory and natural. The conversational method is based on verbal communication and has a private character. It is applied to examine ethnic picture of the world. Investigation of activity products includes studying of drawings, written compositions, clothes, folklore.

Ethnopsychology is a science about facts, laws and mechanisms of mental typology display, valuable orientations, and ethnic behaviour. It describes features of behaviour and its motives within and between ethnoses, which live for centuries in one geographic and historic space.

Ethnopsychology studies social and personal mechanisms of identification and isolation which generated deep psychological phenomena as national consciousness (expressed by the pronoun “we”) and comprehension of different ethnoses (“they”). It results in ambivalent orientation of their parity: acceptance and cooperation on the one hand and isolation and aggression on the other hand (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Task 2. Translate the words into Russian. Write down your own sentences with the original English words:

1) ethnocultural features; 2) cross-cultural psychology; 3) national consciousness; 4) to classify; 5) mentality external displays; 6) repeated experiments; 7) conversational method; 8) folklore; 9) identification; 10) comprehension of different ethnoses.

Task 3. Translate the sentences into Russian, pay attention to the words from the task two:

1) Cross-cultural studies are of paramount importance in economics of multinational corporations which have to adapt their marketing strategy and the product itself to the demand in different cultures.

2) Russian national consciousness was almost lost during the Soviet period but now it is reviving.

3) German ethnocultural features include punctuality whereas most of the time Russians don't think that this feature is necessary at all.

4) Can you classify these psychological concepts according to a chronological criterion?

5) Mentality consists of ethnic stereotypes which are reproduced in everyday life.

6) A single experiment can not show the true phenomenon, only repeated experiments can prove an idea.

7) Conversation method is often used in psychoanalysis.

8) Russian singing folklore is associated with chastushka.

9) You can't come in without a document. Show me your identification card.

Task 4. In the text find English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations:

1) ментальность; 2) психология народов; 3) этнические стереотипы; 4) наблюдение; 5) невмешательство; 6) идентичные условия; 7) этническая картина мира; 8) ценностные ориентации; 9) изоляция; 10) приятие.

Task 5. Translate the sentences into English, pay attention to the words and word combinations from the task four:

1) Основной чертой американской ментальности является индивидуализм.

2) Согласно этническим стереотипам, китайцы представляются нам работящими, а англичане – чопорными.

3) Наблюдение за лабораторными крысами позволило доказать, что некоторые наследственные признаки проявляются через поколение.

4) Швейцария проповедует принцип невмешательства в военные конфликты.

5) Чтобы доказать свою теорию, вам необходимо воссоздать идентичные условия при повторении своего эксперимента.

6) Этническая картина мира несет на себе отпечаток психологии того или иного народа.

7) Ценностные ориентации индейцев племени хопи могут показаться странными современным европейцам.

8) Длительная изоляция Австралии от остального мира привела к появлению совершенно самобытной фауны.

9) Необходимо развивать толерантность и приятие других, непохожих культур.

Task 6. In the text “Ethnopsychology” find synonyms to the following words:

1) psychological anthropology; 2) nation; 3) international; 4) name; 5) for instance; 6) connection; 7) to group; 8) criterion; 9) to produce; 10) communication.

Task 7. In the text “Ethnopsychology” find antonyms to the following words:

1) far; 2) original action; 3) physical; 4) internal; 5) without a purpose; 6) irregular; 7) disturbance; 8) passive; 9) a single experiment; 10) different conditions; 11) between; 12) they.

Task 8. Answer the questions:

1) What does ethnopsychology study?

2) What sciences does ethnopsychology have close links with?

3) What is the subject of ethnopsychology?

4) What methods of research does ethnopsychology use?

5) What does a comparative method allow a scientist to do?

6) What are the main principles for observation?

7) What is the necessary criterion for repeated experiments?

8) What are the types of experiments?

9) What activity products can you enumerate?

10) Does ethnopsychology describe behaviour and its motives within an ethnos or between ethnoses?

11) How can ethnoses make relationships between each other?

12) What is a nation identification?

Task 9. Say whether the following statements are true or false. Correct false statements:

1) Ethnopsychology as a term does not have any synonyms.

2) The object of ethnopsychology is ethnic mentality.

3) The subject of ethnopsychology includes ethnic consciousness.

4) Comparative method is used to study one separated ethnos.

5) Observation was born in cognitive science and later came to ethnopsychology.

6) Experiment is a passive method of ethnopsychology.

7) In an experiment a scientist waits for the phenomenon he is interested in to happen.

8) Conversation method uses written texts which are analysed in special laboratories.

9) Ethnopsychology is prone to study mental typology displays.

10) Ethnopsychology examines characteristic features of ethnoses which live far away from each other.

11) Friends are associated with the pronoun “we”, enemies are identified to the pronoun “they”.

Task 10. In the text “Ethnopsychology” find sentences with the word “discipline” and its derivatives, translate them into Russian. Try to form other words from this root and explain their meaning. Look through vocabulary notes and check yourself. Write down your own sentences with these words:

1) disciple – ученик, последователь, сторонник; (церк.) апостол.

2) disciplinarian – сторонник дисциплины; (ист.) приверженец пресвитерианства.

3) disciplinary – дисциплинарный, исправительный; дисциплинирующий.

4) discipline – дисциплина, порядок; дисциплинированность; обучение, тренировка; дисциплина (отрасль знания); наказание; (церк.) епитимья, умерщвление плоти.

5) to discipline – наказывать, подвергать дисциплинарному взысканию; дисциплинировать; тренировать, (воен.) муштровать.

6) disciplined – дисциплинированный.

7) undisciplined – недисциплинированный.

8) inter-discipline – дисциплина, находящаяся на стыке нескольких наук.

9) interdisciplinary – междисциплинарный.

Task 11. Translate the sentences into Russian. Pay attention to the words from the task ten:

1) Jesus Christ had many disciples but only twelve of them became apostles.

2) Don't be such a furious disciplinarian. Dismiss your employees a bit earlier on New Year's Eve.

3) After the court convicts go to different disciplinary institutions.

4) There should be discipline in the library.

5) At our University we study general as well as special disciplines.

6) Mr. Brown was late for his work as usual that's why his boss wanted to discipline him with the help of a large amount of money, he just fined him, but next time he promised to discharge Mr. Brown.

7) This boy is very disciplined.

8) Ethnopsychology is an inter-discipline based on the theory and practice of ethnography and psychology.

Task 12. Translate Russian words in brackets into English:

1) Followers of cognitive science or (сторонники) are called cognitivists.

2) First, the majority of Englishmen was Catholic but historically they went to be (приверженцами пресвитерианства).

3) Taking care of pets, such as walking a dog, feeding a cat, cleaning a bird cage, is a (дисциплинирующая) activity for small children.

4) (Дисциплинированность) is the best quality for a soldier and military men in general.

5) Add more (тренировок) and your physical state will improve and a bit later your mental abilities will increase too.

6) Some military and police higher education establishments still (муштруют) their students.

7) My nephew is easy-going, smart and generous but sometimes (недисциплинированный).

8) Ethnopsycholinguistics is an (междисциплинарная) science.

Task 13. Read the text “History of Ethnopsychology” and choose the best variants of answers to the questions:

Creation of special discipline, peoples' psychology, was designated in 1860 by M. Latsarus and H. Steintal. They defined “ethnic spirit” as special, closed notion reflecting psychological similarities in individuals of a certain nationality. At the same time it shows ethnic self-consciousness. The content of ethnic spirit could be investigated through comparative research of language, mythology, moral principles and culture.

At the beginning of the 20^th century these ideas received further development and realizations in peoples' psychology studies by W. Wundt. Later ethnopsychology in the USA is associated with neo-freudan theory. It tried to generate national character features from the basic individual features which coincided with children bringing up principles typical of a certain culture.

Questions:

1) When was peoples' psychology born?

a) eighteen sixty

b) eighteen sixteen

c) eighty sixty

2) Who were the founders of peoples' psychology?

a) H. Latsarus and M. Steintal

b) M. Latsarus and H. Steintal

c) C. Marx and F. Engels

3) In what way did they define ethnic spirit?

a) it shows similarities in people of different ethnic origins

b) it reflects psychological features of individuals in general

c) it shows similar features of character in people of one and the same nation

4) What is a comparative research based on?

a) industry and product activity

b) language and culture

c) environment and historic situation

5) Who developed peoples' psychology at the beginning of the 20^th century?

a) Wilhelm Wundt

b) Martin Luther King

c) Elizabeth II

6) What is the route of peoples' psychology development in the USA in the 20^th century?

a) freudan theory

b) freudan practice

c) neo-freudan

7) What was the main aim of peoples' psychology in the USA?

a) to describe national character on the basis of bringing up methods

b) to generate character features from children bringing up principles

c) to show that Americans were the greatest.

Task 14. Read an abstract and say whether the statements are true or false, correct the false statements:

Modern ethnopsychology can not be described as a single science using the same methods and examining the same problems. There are several independent branches in it:

1) Comparative analysis of psycho-physiological ethnic specific features, cognitive processes, memory, emotions, speech, etc. Theoretically and methodically they are part and parcel of certain branches within general and social psychology.

2) Culture investigations aimed at characterization of imagery or symbolic world and valuable orientations typical of a folklore. They are connected to ethnography, folklore studies and art.

3) Studies in the field of ethnic consciousness and self-consciousness which borrowed their methods and terminology from social psychology examining social conditions, rules and inter-group relations.

4) Research in ethnic features of children socialization. Its terminology and methods are linked with sociology and children's psychology.

Statements:

1) Current research in ethnopsychology is a single, unified study.

2) There are three independent branches in ethnopsychology.

3) Modern ethnopsychology investigates the same problems as it did in the 19^th century.

4) Comparative methods of analysis are similar to those used in general psychology.

5) Ethnic speech features can be studied in social psychology.

6) Folklore could be investigated in the sphere of ethnopsychology and art studies.

7) Ethnopsychology does not cover the problems of consciousness and self-consciousness.

8) Children socialization is specific from culture to culture.

9) Ethnic features in children socialization are close to sociologic and children's psychology subjects.

Task 15. Read an abstract and put right words into the blanks. Choose the words from the given list:

National culture properties … (1) from individuals' ethnos features. That's why there are some … (2) in culture and ethnopsychological studies. Today in ethnopsychology … (3) attention is paid to psychological … (4) of ethnic conflicts, finding effective ways of their … (5). It also deals with the roots of growth in national … (6) and ways of its activating in different … (7) and national settings.

Words: self-consciousness, differ, social, specialities, solving, much, causes.

Task 16. Translate into English:

Функции картины мира вытекают из природы и предназначения в человеческой жизнедеятельности мировидения. Мировидение имеет две базисные функции: интерпретативную (осуществлять видение мира) и регулятивную (служить ориентиром в мире, быть универсальным ориентиром человеческой жизнедеятельности). Без картины мира невозможным оказалось бы человеческое общение и взаимопонимание. Без нее не смог бы существовать весь социокультурный организм с его механизмами трансляции и воспроизводства опыта. Картина мира – стержень интеграции людей, средство гармонизации разных сфер человеческой жизнедеятельности, их связи между собой. Картина мира способствует тесной связи и единству знания и поведения людей в обществе.

Семиотические воплотители картины мира – различные тексты. Тексты различаются по субстанции знаков, образующих эти тексты, в качестве которой может служить письменная или устная речь, последовательность графических, живописных или скульптурных изображений, архитектурные комплексы, музыкальные или вокальные фразы, жесты, некоторые особенные формы человеческого поведения (например, состояние сна, гипноза и т.д.) и осмысленные особым образом обычные формы поведения (например, принятие пищи), а также вовлеченные в культовую сферу обычные предметы обихода. (from Роль человеческого фактора в языке 1988).

Task 17. Crossword puzzle. In the table find words connected with the topic “Ethnopsychology”. Words could be written down, up, and across, diagonally, from the left to the right and visa versa:

Unit X. Clinical Psychology

Task 1. Read and translate the text “American Clinical Psychology”:

American Clinical Psychology

American clinical psychology includes the scientific study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Psychological assessment and psychotherapy are central to its practice, although clinical psychologists also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, programme development and administration. In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

The field is often considered to have begun in 1896 with the opening of the first psychological clinic at the University of Pennsylvania by Lightner Witmer. In the first half of the 20^th century, clinical psychology was focused on psychological assessment, with little attention given to treatment. This changed after the 1940s when World War II resulted in the need for a large increase in the number of trained clinicians.

Clinical psychology may be confused with psychiatry, which generally has similar goals (e.g. the alleviation of mental distress), but is unique in that psychiatrists are physicians with medical degrees. As such, they tend to focus on medication-based solutions, although some also provide psychotherapeutic services as well. In practice, clinical psychologists often work in multidisciplinary teams with other professionals such as psychiatrists, occupational therapists, and social workers to bring multifunctional approach to complex patient problems.

Since the 1970s, clinical psychology has continued growing into a robust profession and academic field of study. Although the exact number of practicing clinical psychologists is unknown, it is estimated that between 1974 and 1990, in the US the number grew from 20,000 to 63,000. Clinical psychologists are experts in assessment, and psychotherapy, and have expanded their focus to address issues of prevention, gerontology, sports, the criminal justice system to name a few.

One important field is health psychology, reflected in hospitals as being the fastest growing employment setting for clinical psychologists in the past decade. Other major changes include the impact of managed care on mental health care; an increasing realization of the importance of knowledge reflecting the multicultural and diverse population. An important and challenging specialization is the emerging privileges to prescribe psychotropic medication. The prescription laws passed in the states New Mexico and Louisiana, thus new area has the support of the American Psychological Association and will soon expand to other states. It is already changing the way clinical psychologists practice in the US and in other countries around the globe.

In practice, clinical psychologists may work with individuals, couples, families, or groups in a variety of settings, including private practices, hospitals, mental health organisations, schools, business, and non-profit agencies. Most clinical psychologists who engage in research and teaching do so within a college or university setting. Clinical psychologists may also choose to specialize in a particular field or common area of specialization (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Task 2. Translate the words and word combinations into Russian:

1) preventing; 2) assessment; 3) forensic testimony; 4) alleviation of mental distress; 5) robust profession; 6) major changes; 7) challenging; 8) private practice; 9) non-profit agency.

Task 3. Match the words and their definitions:

Task 4. In the text “American Clinical Psychology” find equivalents to the following Russian words:

1) дисфункция; 2) быть занятым в … 3) лечение; 4) многофункциональный; 5) оцениваться; 6) разнородное население; 7) психотропные средства; 8) организации по охране здоровья.

Task 5. In the text find synonyms:

1) medical psychology; 2) founding; 3) hospital; 4) to be mixed; 5) alleviation; 6) physicians with medical degrees; 7) certain, particular; 8) the Earth; 9) higher education establishment.

Task 6. In the text find antonyms:

1) social; 2) decrease; 3) problem; 4) simple; 5) slowest; 6) mono-cultural; 7) group; 8) non-profit agency.

Task 7. Answer the questions:

1) What is the purpose of clinical psychology?

2) What do clinical psychologists engage in?

3) When and where was clinical psychology born?

4) What was the main aim of clinical psychology in the first half of the 20^th century?

5) Why do you think after World War II clinical psychology changed its priorities from psychological assessment to treatment?

6) What is the difference between clinical psychology and psychiatry?

7) Do clinical psychologists work alone?

8) What is the number of clinical psychologists in the USA?

9) What are the new perspectives for clinical psychology?

10) Does clinical psychology deal with multicultural population's health problems?

11) Whom can clinical psychologists work with?

12) Where can clinical psychologists work?

Task 8. Say whether these statements are true or false, correct false statements:

1) Promoting subjective well-being and personal development is out of the interests of clinical psychology.

2) A clinical psychologist is a qualified profession.

3) The founder of clinical psychology is W. Wundt's former student Lightner Witmer.

4) The first psychological clinic was opened in Pennsylvania, one of the British counties.

5) After 1940s clinical psychology was focused on assessment rather than curing.

6) Clinical psychology is the same term as psychiatry.

7) Psychiatrists treat their patients with medicines.

8) Usually clinical psychologists prescribe simple solutions to complex patients' problems.

9) The number of clinical psychologists in the USA has decreased from 1974 till 1990.

10) There is no influence of managed care on mental health care.

11) All clinical psychologists can prescribe psychotropic medication.

12) Clinical psychologists could not be engaged in teaching and fundamental research.

13) A clinical psychologist could practice only in a general setting.

Task 9. In the text “American Clinical Psychology” find sentences with the word “subjective”, translate it into Russian. Form words of different parts of speech from this root, explain their meaning. Check yourself looking through vocabulary notes:

1) subject – тема, предмет разговора, сюжет (to dwell on a sore subject – остановиться на больном вопросе; to change the subject – переменить тему разговора; to traverse a subject – обсудить вопрос); повод (for – к чему-либо), (a subject for pity – повод для сожаления); предмет, дисциплина; подлежащее; подданный; (филос.) субъект; (муз.) главная тема; субъект, человек (a hysterical subject – истерический тип); объект, предмет (of); труп (для вскрытия).

2) on the subject of – касаясь чего-либо.

3) subject – подчиненный, подвластный (subject nations – несамостоятельные государства); подверженный (to); подлежащий (subject to – при условии, допуская, если).

4) to subject – подвергать (воздействию, влиянию и т.п.); подчинять, покорять (to); представлять (to subject a plan for consideration – представить план на рассмотрение).

5) subject-heading – предметный указатель, индекс.

6) subjection – покорение, подчинение; зависимость.

7) subjective – субъективный; (грам.) свойственный подлежащему (subjective case – именительный падеж).

8) subjectivism – (филос.) субъективизм.

9) subjectivity – субъективность.

10) subject matter – тема, содержание (книги, разговора и т.п.); предмет (обсуждения и т.п.).

Task 10. Translate the sentences into Russian, pay attention to the word “subject” and its derivatives:

1) What is the subject of your discussion?

2) Though he is disabled, he is not a subject for pity. He lives a full, active life.

3) Find the subject in the sentence: “It is cold today”. Translate this sentence into French.

4) She is a hysterical subject though almost all of the time she is quite bearable.

5) Hong Kong was a British colony and was returned to China in 1997 but still it is a subject nation.

6) You should have subjected your anti-crisis plan for consideration two weeks ago! What are you thinking about?

7) Black people were fighting against their subjection in the USA for a long time.

8) You are subjective as you are convict's uncle. The court will not pay attention to your testimony.

Task 11. Translate Russian words in brackets into English:

1) John didn't like to dwell on a sore (тема) of being a jobless and tried to change the (тему разговора) but Mary suggested him a new well-paid job.

2) Take this strange hat off or you are such a (предмет насмешек).

3) He is a (подданный) of Netherlands.

4) There is a (труп для вскрытия) on the surgery table. You should do the expertise as soon as possible. Our police office needs the results badly.

5) He is (подвержен) to panic in every problem situation.

6) Do not (поддаваться) to his influence. Prove your point of view.

7) You are so (субъективный) in this situation.

8) Do you find the (содержание) of the play true to life?

9) English nouns have two cases: (именительный) and possessive.

Task 12. Translate the sentences into English, pay attention to the word “subject” and its derivatives:

1) Необходимо обсудить вопрос о помощи пострадавшим от землетрясения в Малайзии.

2) Физика – мой любимый предмет.

3) Главная тема этого произведения – это верность национальным традициям и устоям.

4) Раз уж мы заговорили о праздниках, могу ли я узнать, что тебе подарить на Рождество?

5) При условии не возврата ипотеки, ваша квартира может быть конфискована в пользу банка.

6) Вы можете найти предметный указатель в конце учебника.

7) Ученый должен отстраниться от субъективности в своих научных опытах.

8) Предметом этнопсихолингвистики является этническая картина мира и язык, а также их влияние на жизнедеятельность человека.

Task 13. Read an abstract and choose the words from the brackets to put into blanks:

History of Clinical Psychology

Even as clinical psychology was … (grow, growing, grew), working with issues of serious mental … (dystress, destress, distress) remained the domain of psychiatrists and … (neurologists, neirologists, nevrologists). However clinical psychologists continued to make inroads into this … (area, areas, areal) due to their increasing skill at psychological assessment. Psychologists' … (riputation, raputation, reputation) as assessment experts became solidified during World War I with the … (develop, development, developed) of two intelligence tests, Army Alpha and Army Beta, testing verbal and nonverbal skills … (respectively, respective, respect), which could be used with large groups of recruits. Due in large part to the success of these … (test, tests, testing), assessment was to become the core discipline of … (clinic, clinically, clinical) psychology for the next quarter century, when another war … (would, will, shall) propel the field into treatment.

When World War II … (break, broke, broken) out, the military once again called upon clinical psychologists. As … (soldiers, soldier, generals) began to return from combat, psychologists started to notice symptoms of psychological trauma … (coins, term, labeled) “shell shock”, eventually to be termed posttraumatic stress disorder, that were best treated as … (son, sun, soon) as possible. Because physicians, including psychiatrists, were over-extended … (in, to, with) treating bodily injuries, psychologists were called to help treat this condition. At the … (some, same, sum) time, female psychologists, who were excluded from the war effort, formed the … (Nationalistic, Ethnic, National) Council of Women Psychologists with the purpose of helping communities deal with the stresses of … (piece, war, world) and giving young mothers advice on child rearing. … (Before, Above, After) the war, the Veterans Administration in the US made an enormous investment to … (sit up, set up, sat up) programmes to train doctoral-level clinical psychologists to help treat the thousands of veterans needing … (careful, care, carefully). As a consequence, the US went from having no formal University programmes … (from, up, in) clinical psychology in 1946 to over a half of all Ph.Ds in psychology in 1950 being awarded in clinical … (psychologist, psychologists, psychology).

Task 14. Read an abstract and put proper words into the blanks. Choose the words from the given list:

Since the time of World War II, two main educational models have developed – the Ph.D. … (1) focusing on research and the Psy.D. practitioner-scholar model focusing on clinical practice. Clinical psychologists are now considered experts in providing … (2), and generally trained within four primarily theoretical orientations – Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive Behavioral, and Systems or … (3).

WWII helped bring dramatic changes to clinical psychology, not just in … (4) but internationally as well. … (5) in psychology began adding psychotherapy to the science and research focus based on the 1947 scientist-practitioner model, known today as the Boulder Model, for Ph.D. programmes in clinical psychology. Clinical psychology in Britain developed … (6) in the US after WWII, specifically within the context of the National Health Service with qualifications, standarts, and salaries managed by the British Psychological Society.

By the 1960s, psychotherapy had become … (7) within clinical psychology, but for many the Ph.D. educational model did not offer the necessary training for those interested in practice rather than research. There was a growing … (8) that said the field of psychology in the US had developed to a degree warranting explicit training in clinical practice. The concept of a practice-oriented degree was debated in 1965 and narrowly gained … (9) for a pilot programme at the University of Illinois starting in 1968. Several other similar programmes were instituted soon after, and … (10) at the Vail Conference on Professional Training in Psychology, the Practitioner-Scholar Model of Clinical Psychology – or Vail Model – resulting in the Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) degree was recognized. … (11) training would continue to include research skills and a scientific understanding of psychology, the intent would be to produce highly trained professionals, similar to programmes in medicine, … (12), and law. The first programme explicitly based on the Psy.D. model was instituted at Rutgers University. Today, about half of all American graduate students in clinical psychology are enrolled in Psy.D. programmes.

Words: America, psychotherapy, dentistry, much like, although, graduate education, Family therapy, imbedded, in 1973, science-practitioner model, approval, argument.

Task 15. Read the list of words and word combinations. Rewrite them into two groups on the semantic principle. One group consists of clinical psychologists' professional services, the other includes clinical psychologists' specialization areas:

1) administer and interpret psychological assessment and testing,

2) conduct psychological research,

3) child and adolescent,

4) family and relationship counseling,

5) forensic,

6) consultation (especially with schools and businesses),

7) health,

8) neuropsychological disorders,

9) development of prevention and treatment programmes,

10) programme administration,

11) organization and business,

12) school,

13) specific disorders (e.g. trauma, addiction, eating, sleep, sex, clinical depression, anxiety, or phobias),

14) provide expert testimony,

15) provide psychological treatment,

16) sport,

17) teach.

Task 16. Read the text “Clinical Psychology” and choose the best variants of answers to the questions:

Clinical Psychology

Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology which aim is solving practical and theoretical questions connected to diagnosis of illnesses and pathological states, psycho-correctional forms of influence on rehabilitation process, and studying the impact of psychological factors on appearing of other illnesses. Clinical psychology's subject is examining mechanisms and laws of appearance of stable non-adaptive states. Thus, clinical psychology deals with diagnosis, correction and reconstruction of normal healthful individual's states on the basis of the knowledge about possible non-adaptations.

There are positive and negative types of diagnostics in clinical psychology. Negative diagnostics is used in the case of psychological or somatic problems. Its goal is to diagnose the illness, find pathological functioning mechanisms, differentiate between similar states and disorders. Its results are used in psychiatry, neuropsychology, psycho-correction, etc. Positive diagnostics deals with examining individual psychological features, characteristics of psychological functions and some others. Its data is applied in different expert solutions, individual and group consulting and so on.

All the types of diagnostics used in clinical psychology could be divided into: 1) clinical differentiating-diagnosing and topical; 2) diagnostics in structure of disorders in psychological functioning; 3) diagnostics of patient's individual features of character; 4) diagnostics of abnormal development in early age; 5) expert testimonies; 6) medical and pedagogical; 7) rehabilitative; 8) psycho-corrective.

As psychopathological states reflect concealed changes of brain disorders, they could not be studied only on the basis of these types of diagnostics, and in the limits of only one science (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Questions:

1) What is the definition of clinical psychology as a branch of psychology?

a) its goal is diagnostics of mental illnesses and pathological states

b) it is connected to rehabilitation process

c) it deals with clinical treatment of mental sickness

2) What is the basis of knowledge in clinical psychology?

a) knowledge of possible illnesses

b) theory of brain functioning

c) knowledge about human psychological non-adaptations

3) What are the types of diagnostics applied in clinical psychology?

a) clinical and laboratory

b) positive and negative

c) medical and psychological

4) Where is the negative diagnostics used?

a) in psychological and somatic dysfunction

b) in the case of physical problems

c) in learning disorders

5) What is the aim of negative diagnostics?

a) to classify brain dysfunction

b) to treat the illness

c) to find out the illness and pathologies

6) Where can the results of negative diagnostics be used?

a) in psychiatry, neuropsychology, psycho-correction, etc.

b) in psychiatry, neuropsychology and psycho-correction

c) in psychology and information science

7) What is the positive diagnostics?

a) it examines psychological features and character

b) it deals with forensic testimony

c) it investigates personal character and its influence on possible illness

8) Where could positive diagnostics results be applied?

a) forensic testimony

b) expert solutions, psychological consulting

c) individual and group consulting

9) Is diagnostics of abnormal development a type of clinical psychology diagnostics?

a) Yes, it is. It is a type of diagnostics together with some others

b) Yes, it is, but only of abnormal development in early children's age

c) No, it is not. It is a branch of age psychology

10) Is clinical psychology the only science to study brain disorders?

a) No, it is not. It works hand in hand with neuropsychology

b) No, it is not. It works in cooperation with medical and other sciences

c) Yes, it is. Clinical psychology can study brain disorders alone

Task 17. Read the abstracts and match them with their titles, one title is extra:

1) neuropsychology

2) psycho-correction

3) psychotherapy

4) psychiatry

5) psychosomatic

6) pathopsychology

a) Pathopsychology deals with human psyche dysfunction, problems in adequate world comprehension possible because of illnesses of central nervous system. Pathopsychology studies laws and rules of psychological processes collapse in different diseases and factors which help to form effective treatment methods. Practical goals include structural psychological disorders analysis, defining the type and degree of psychological function decreasing process, differential diagnostics, examining personal features of character and investigating the therapeutic influence effectiveness.

There is a difference between pathopsychology and psychopathology. Clinical psychopathology studies, describes and systematizes realization of broken psychological functions. Pathopsychology shows the character of going and specific features of the psychological processes structure which result in symptoms viewing at clinic state, all this is done with the help of psychological methods. The founders of Russian pathopsychology are considered B.V. Zeigarnik and S.Y. Rubinstein.

b) Neuropsychology is a large scientific discipline studying the role of brain and central nervous system in psychological processes which covers the questions of psychiatry and neurology, as well as philosophy of consciousness, cognitive science and artificial neuro-chains. Soviet neurological school dealt with investigation of cause-and-effect relationships between brain dysfunction, their localization and changes in psychological processes. The leading role in neuropsychology creation was played by Soviet scientists A.R. Luria and L.S. Vygotsky whose research became world famous.

c) Psychosomatic examines problems of patients with somatic dysfunction. These illnesses are based on psychological factors. Psychosomatic covers problems of cancer and other illnesses (news about the diagnosis, psychological help, preparing for an operation, rehabilitation, etc.) and psychosomatic dysfunction (going through a sudden or old psychological shock, some heart diseases, hypertonic disorders, asthma and some other illnesses).

d) Psycho-correction is connected to special help to sick people. This branch works out psychological bases of psychotherapy. Psychological rehabilitation as systematic medical psychological activity is aimed at revival of personal social status through different medical, psychological, social and pedagogical acts. Psycho-prophylaxis is the system of activities of preventing psychological disorders. Medical-psychological expertise is also included in psycho-correction.

e) Psychotherapy is the main method of psychological correction which is used by a clinic psychologist. It is a system of techniques and methods applied by a psycho-therapist to change person's psycho-emotional state, his behaviour and communicative patterns, improve his state and adaptation in a society. Psychotherapy is used for individuals and groups. There are several different branches in it: psycho-dynamics, psychotherapy, cognitive psychotherapy, humanistic, family, gestalt psychotherapy. Recently there appeared transpersonal types of psychotherapy and neuro-linguistics programming psychotherapy.

Task 18. Render the following text into English:

Психотерапия – психологическая помощь, направленная на разрешение эмоциональных проблем и основанное преимущественно на беседе специалиста-психотерапевта с лицом, ищущим помощи. К психотерапевту обращаются люди как с относительно несложными жизненными проблемами, так и с серьезными психическими заболеваниями, например шизофренией; чаще всего они ищут помощи при тяжелых эмоциональных стрессах.

У психотерапии могут быть весьма специфичные цели, например преодоление фобий, или более широкая задача – помочь человеку изменить собственную личность, стать более доверчивым, общительным, способным к созданию стабильных эмоциональных отношений. Психотерапия может применяться в сочетании с другими видами лечения, такими, как лекарственная терапия или терапия средой.

Сердечный разговор между двумя людьми во многих отношениях схож с психотерапией. Однако, последняя предполагает наличие того, кто ищет помощи, и подготовленного терапевта, руководствующегося определенными теоретическими принципами. Усилия психотерапевта оплачиваются; кроме того, он руководствуется этическими ограничениями, обязывающими его сохранять конфиденциальность информации.

Психотерапией занимаются люди с различным образованием и подготовкой; это могут быть психиатры, психологи, социальные работники, медицинские сестры. Однако только психиатры, как получившие медицинское образование, имеют право выписывать лекарства или назначать дополнительные виды лечения. В больницах и клиниках психотерапевты нередко входят в состав лечащей бригады.

Task 19. Read the text “Types of Psychotherapy” and say whether the statements are true or false, correct false statements:

Types of Psychotherapy

Each type of psychotherapy is based on a certain model. Some of these theories try to describe human behaviour in general, some are concerned only with therapeutic practice. Nowadays, the majority of therapists are not followers of one theory, they try to use the best ideas from different sources.

Psychoanalysis is one of the types of psychotherapy. It uses method of free associations when the patient is asked to say every idea appearing in his head regardless of the wording or the subject. A doctor pays special attention to patient's unconscious motives and behaviour. He tries to see the cause of trouble concealed in his unconscious. The most important fact is child's experience which determines automatic emotional reactions in mature age.

Centered on the client psychotherapy was founded by C. Rodgers. It creates such an emotional setting which allows the client discuss his own emotions without the fear of disapproval and thus, examine the feelings. It is considered that such a freedom would make the patient solve his problems. Very often this type of psychotherapy is combined with psychoanalysis.

Behavioral therapy uses the direction based on behaviorism and the theory of social education rather than on the theory of an individual. According to it, therapist analyses specific forms of behavoiur, which the patient wants to change, and finds out pleasant and unpleasant consequences to make the patient use self-observation, make his self-control stronger and teach him desired conditioned response reactions.

Transactant analysis is another type of psychotherapy. It was introduced by American psychiatrist A. Bern, and it borrows some ideas from psychoanalysis. Psychologists think that each person incorporates the aspects of a “parent”, “child” and “adult”. Problems appear when one individual's certain aspects (for example, childish impulsiveness) interrelate with a different person's another aspect (for example, adult's rationalism). In this case the partners do not understand each other.

Gestalt-therapy produced some methods aimed at helping an individual integrate all parts of his “I”. The separated or non-comprehended parts could be certain feelings or behaviour forms connected to incomplete, non-thought-over situations in the past. As a result of such situations a person could not live here and now, but lives in the world of the past or illusions. Gestalt-therapy makes an individual oppose his usual feelings and behaviour.

Movement therapy is one more type of psychotherapy. It grew out of the idea that emotional states are reflected in different poses and muscle tension. Relaxing or energetic movements can improve psychological state. Methods of movement therapy are numerous and include dancing, massage, yoga and meditation.

Children psychotherapy is a game or play therapy, created for children who are too small to discuss their problems. Psychologist lets the child play as he likes with any of the toys in the special playing room. From the game situations produced by a child and his phrases the doctor could understand the problems which disturb the child. Then, taking part in the play or speaking with parents, psychologist could help solve child's problems.

Evaluation of effectiveness is complex as psychologists, patients and their families have different evaluation criteria. But the data of specialized research shows that psychotherapy is effective in majority of cases.

Statements:

1) Each kind of psychotherapy is based on the knowledge received at a higher education establishment.

2) Each psychotherapist is a disciple of one, single theory in his practice.

3) Psychoanalysis is the method of uncensored associations.

4) In psychoanalysis a patient gives his associations using the wording suggested by his psychologist.

5) Psychoanalysis deals with patient's conscious.

6) Most important factors influencing person's bahaviour, according to psychoanalysis, are experiences received at a birth process.

7) Centered on the psychologist approach was introduced by Carl Rodgers.

8) In centered on the client psychotherapy a special intimate setting is created.

9) While discussing patient's problems in centered on the client psychotherapy, psychologist must approve or disapprove his actions.

10) Centered on the client psychotherapy is used together with psychoanalytical method.

11) Behavioral therapy is based on the theory of individual features of character.

12) Therapist in behavioral therapy tries to teach a patient self-consciousness and punctuality.

13) In Russia, behavioral therapy is based on conditional responses theory proposed by I. Pavlov.

14) Transactant analysis was created by a Swiss psychologist A. Bern.

15) Psychologists are sure that each person has several roles integrated in his individuality.

16) Interrelations of people's different roles is called transaction, thus, the method is called transactant.

17) Gestalt-therapy studies the possible types of cooperation of parts in human personality.

18) A human being can not live in the world of dreams.

19) Gestalt-therapy makes a person follow and get used to his usual feelings and types of behaviour.

20) Movement therapy examines human poses, face, and movements.

21) Movement therapy prescribes yoga as treatment at all diseases.

22) Children therapy helps children to become adults as soon as possible.

23) Children therapist communicates only with children.

24) All scientists think that psychotherapy is less effective than medical curing.

25) Usually a psychologist, his patient and patient's family have the same evaluation criteria of psychotherapy effectiveness.

Unit XI. Criminal Psychology

Task 1. Read the text “General Notions on Criminal Psychology” and translate it into Russian:

General Notions on Criminal Psychology

In a literal sense the criminal psychology is a science about the subjective part of a crime, its internal determination and criminal's personality. Criminality and crime always attracted people's attention. Bible prophets wrote about them with anger, predicting Divine penalty for human sinfulness. All philosophical systems and religions tried to find and explain harm sources in human relations and a human being.

One of the most widespread classifications presupposes existence of three schools of criminological thought.

The first is a Classical school. Its followers are Bekkeria, Bentam, Fejerbah, etc. The basic ideas of this school were reduced to the following concepts. A person is the carrier of free will and the crime is a result of his free choice. Since the person, possessing moral freedom, chooses harm, he should bear punishment for his choice. Process of decision-making on commission of crime has exclusively rational character, hence, the person commits a crime only having weighed all pro and contra. Strengthening punishment, the society makes a crime less attractive that allows to keep people from its fulfillment. Punishment toughening should be made on the principle “to toughen only in such a way as to make a crime unattractive”.

Critics reproached representatives of classical school that they lost track of criminal's personality. Their concept was a little schematic and exclusively rational. Only in the 20^th century psychologists established the fact that characteristic features of a person are complex and complicated. At the same time ideas of this school are named classical as they live till now and are the basis of systematic influence on criminality in many countries despite of the attempts to refuse them.

Anthropological school was established by C. Lombrozo. His basic idea is that a criminal is a special natural type, who is more sick than guilty. People do not become criminals but they are born. A criminal is an original biped predator who like a tiger does not need to be reproached for bloodthirstiness. A criminal person should be revealed on a number of signs and isolated or destroyed.

However, having put a person who commits a crime in the centre of scientific research, Lombrozo started criminal's personality study as a deep system research. It laid down a basis of the lie detector, which Lombrozo named sphygmograph.

Sociological school was followed by Ferri, Durkgheim and Saterland. The essence of Ferri's concept consists in crime consideration as product of three sorts of natural factors (anthropological, physical, social). Physical factors (climate, weather, geographical features) influence all criminals almost equally; anthropological factors prevail in criminal activity of born criminals, mad or in passion; social factors influence casual criminals or criminals on habit. Thus, the priority is given to social factors.

To explain crime genesis, it is necessary to investigate conditions of criminal's family and public life, his anthropological features (anatomic, physiological and mental).

Positivist theories of criminality were widely adopted in many countries, including pre-revolutionary Russia. In many university cities of Russia and Ukraine criminological research centres were created in 1920s. The most important place in research was occupied by criminal psychology. Research was established basically by teachers and students from Faculties of Law in coordination with psychiatrists and psychologists. Gradually subjects of criminal psychology began to be allocated in independent branch of law.

Being an integral part of criminology, criminal psychology studies mental laws, connected with formation of criminal installation, criminal intention, preparation and realization of crime, creation of criminal stereotypes of behaviour. It investigates criminal's personality and criminal groups and psychological ways to influence such person or group (from http://en.wikipedia.org).

Task 2. Translate the words from English into Russian. Write down your own sentences using original English words:

1) determination; 2) widespread; 3) to strengthen punishment; 4) to refuse; 5) bloodthirstiness; 6) to commit a crime; 7) natural factors; 8) to be adopted; 9) criminological research centres; 10) criminal installation; 11) mental laws.

Task 3. In the text find English equivalents to the following Russian words and word combinations:

1) Библия; 2) носитель свободной воли; 3) упрекать, укорять; 4) виновный, виноватый; 5) быть выявленным, найденным; 6) детектор лжи; 7) приоритет; 8) дореволюционный; 9) криминальный стереотип поведения.

Task 4. In the text find synonyms to the following words:

1) punishment; 2) man, person; 3) main, important; 4) to toughen punishment; 5) path; 6) to break law; 7) to apply; 8) determination.

Task 5. In the text find antonyms to the following words:

1) objective; 2) to enlarge; 3) irrational; 4) contra; 5) unattractive; 6) shallow; 7) differently; 8) post-revolutionary.

Task 6. Translate the sentences into Russian. Make use of the words from task two:

1) On the New Year's Eve I promised to work out a determination to change my negative features of character. The first thing was to be everywhere in time as I am always late for my appointments.

2) A Colorado bug received a widespread areal of living due to export of American potato during World War II.

3) If the Parliament strengthens the punishment for absence on the parliamentary session we will be able to see our MPs each day on TV working on making bills to become laws.

4) Our society decided to refuse death penalty in accordance with our international agreements.

5) During WWI Russian Cossacks were showed as bloodthirsty beasts by German mass media though it was totally false.

6) Was he made to commit a crime by severe life conditions and surroundings? We could not name them natural factors. A lot of people live in such conditions and do not break law.

7) Russian constitution was adopted in 1994.

8) Modern criminological research centre was established by our University.

Task 7. Translate the sentences into English, pay attention to the words from task three:

1) Библия включает в себя Ветхий и Новый Завет.

2) Согласно Ф. Ницше, человек является носителем свободной воли.

3) Не упрекай его. Он не виноват. Просто бывают дни, когда все валится из рук и идет не так, как задумывалось.

4) Таблица Менделеева выявляет определенную закономерность в расположении химических элементов.

5) Использование детектора лжи незаконно без согласия испытуемого.

6) Нефтедобыча является приоритетной отраслью для стран Персидского залива.

7) Политическая и экономическая ситуация в дореволюционной России была далеко не стабильной.

8) Криминальный стереотип поведения предполагает использование особого жаргона, который непонятен для окружающих.

Task 8. Answer the questions:

1) What does the term “criminal psychology” mean in the literal sense?

2) What is said in the Bible about criminals?

3) What are the most famous schools of criminology?

4) What are the ideas postulated by the classical school in criminology?

5) What did the critics say about classical approach to crime and criminals?

6) Does the classical school exist nowadays?

7) Who is the representative of the anthropological school?

8) What are the ideas of anthropological approach in criminology?

9) Did C. Lombrozo start studying criminal's individuality?

10) What is C. Lombrozo's main creation?

11) Can you enumerate principles of the sociological school?

12) Who made investigation in the criminal research centres in Russia at the beginning of the 20^th century?

13) What does criminal psychology study?

14) Does criminal psychology examine criminal groups?

Task 9. Say whether the statements are true or false, correct false statements:

1) There is nothing said about crime and criminals in the Bible.

2) Buddhism does not say about harm sources in human beings.

3) The followers of classic approach in criminology are Bekkeria, Bentam, Fejerbah, etc.

4) According to the classical school a person chooses crime unconsciously and should not be punished for this.

5) Classical school supposes that punishment should be as strong and severe as possible.

6) Classical approach is very detailed and humanistic.

7) C. Lombrozo thought that a criminal is a sick person and he is not guilty.

8) According to C. Lombrozo an individual can become a criminal under special circumstances.

9) C. Lombrozo suggested finding out all people who can be criminals and isolate or destroy them.

10) Physical factors influencing a possible criminal include individual character and surroundings.

11) In sociological school priority is given to anthropological factors.

12) Judicial psychology studies possible actions in human life.

Task 10. In the text find sentences with the word “crime” and its derivatives, explain their meaning. Form other words from this root. Look through vocabulary notes and check yourself:

1) crime – преступление, злодеяние (crimes against humanity – преступления против человечности); преступность.

2) to crime – (воен.) карать за нарушение устава.

3) criminal – преступный, криминальный, уголовный (criminal law – уголовное право; criminal action – уголовное дело).

4) criminal – преступник (war criminal – военный преступник).

5) criminalist – криминалист, специалист по уголовному праву.

6) criminality – преступность, виновность.

7) criminally – преступно, согласно уголовному праву.

8) to criminate – обвинять в преступлении, инкриминировать; осуждать, порицать.

9) crimination – обвинение в преступлении; осуждение, резкое порицание.

10) criminative, criminatory – обвинительный, обличительный.

11) criminology – криминология.

Task 11. Translate sentences into Russian, pay attention to the word “crime” and its derivatives:

1) Being a good psychologist, F.M. Dostoevsky wrote his novel “Crime and Punishment” for three years studying criminal's features of character.

2) Crime rate in the United Kingdom is increasing.

3) Police opened a criminal action for a person suspected in murder.

4) A criminal who ran from the prison was caught.

5) Criminality in this London borough is very high.

6) He is criminated in speeding.

7) Prosecutor's criminative speech was excellent. It proved suspect's guilt completely and he was convicted.

8) Criminology is a serious science using research of different modern disciplines.

9) Director of the bank founded a criminal group and stole all the money from his own bank.

10) War criminals should be prosecuted.

11) He is incriminated smuggling.

Task 12. Translate Russian words in brackets into English:

1) Nazy (преступники) were prosecuted for (преступления против человечности).

2) A colonel was (покарали за нарушение устава) using a sub-marine for his own needs. He used it to transport his wife to France to her hairdresser and back.

3) (Криминальная) psychology is a branch of general psychology.

4) (Криминалист) found out the detail which helped to find a suspect.

5) (Согласно уголовному праву) for his crime a suspect could receive from three to seven years.

6) Your (обвинение) in high-jacking is certain and could not be doubt in.

7) Your (обличительная) speech is not convincing. I don't believe you.

8) Fashion industry (инкриминируется) the cult of Things.

Task 13. Translate an abstract from Russian into English:

Юридическая психология рассматривает психологические вопросы, связанные с реализацией системы права. Она подразделяется на судебную психологию, исследующую психические особенности поведения участников уголовного процесса (психология свидетельских показаний, особенности поведения обвиняемого, психологические требования к допросу и т.п.); криминальную психологию, занимающуюся психологическими проблемами поведения и формирования или деформации личности преступника, мотивами преступления и т.д.; пенитенциарную, или исправительно-трудовую психологию, изучающую психологию заключенного в исправительно-трудовой колонии, психологические проблемы воспитания методами убеждения и принуждения и т.п.

Task 14. Match abstracts with their titles. One title is extra:

Titles:

1) penitentiary psychology

2) criminal psychology

3) law psychology

4) court psychology

5) judicial psychology

a) This branch of psychology characterizes psychological features of law consciousness, i.e. the sphere of social and individual consciousness which reflects law phenomena. It is connected to human ideals and principles. It contains human subjective relations to public law and order. It is formed on the basis of human ideals and law education.

b) This type of judicial psychology studies psychological phenomena concerned with legal punishment and the process of convicts' and prisoners' education and bringing them up. It examines the influence of prison setting on personality structure.

c) This branch examines mechanisms and rules of human activity in investigation, court procedure and crime preventing. It finds out which special features of character are necessary for successful professional activity in police and court. It produces purposeful formation techniques preventing personality deformation.

d) It is a branch of judicial psychology studying psychological rules of criminal determination formation and their realization in criminal behaviour. It works out methods for fighting such determinations to prevent crimes. It shows the mechanisms of criminal behaviour which reflect influence of negative surroundings, pedagogical and family mistakes in bringing up and education.

Task 15. Read an abstract and say what is a psychological court expertise and when is it used:

Psychological court expertise is an investigation of non-pathological psychological abnormal features of participants in criminal or civil actions, which is important to find out truth in criminal or civil actions. Psychological court expertise is used in the following cases: 1) expertise of prosecuted person's or suspect's special features of character and their influence on his or her behaviour at the moment of crime; 2) affect expertise; 3) expertise of juvenile delinquents' ability to understand the nature and social danger of their actions; 4) expertise of witness's or sufferer's ability to comprehend crime circumstances correctly and give correct information about them; 5) expertise of spouses' psychological compatibility or the compatibility of a child and parent or step-parents.

Task 16. Read an abstract and choose the best words from the brackets to fit in the blanks:

Court psychology is a discipline … (studying, study, studies) special features of development and realization of psychological … (phenomenae, phenomena, phenomenons) connected to law and court procedure. It examines the way the court system … (influence, have influenced, influences) human psychology. Its aim is to find the truth … (effective, effectively, effect), to educate convicts and ordinary … (people, person, individual).

Its goal is to investigate the rules of: 1) appearance, development of psychological … (character, characters, characteristics) leading to breaking the law; 2) changes and development of psychological features in the … (procedure, process, profit) of committing a crime, going through the court procedure; 3) changes in psychology of … (old, mature, young) criminals.

This science should … (help, helps, to help) in: 1) finding out objective truth at criminal and civil actions, producing … (write, right, rite) sentence for a crime; 2) bringing up and changing of criminals; 3) educating all citizens in accordance to the … (legal, lawyer, law); 4) preventing crimes and offences.

Court psychology development is determined by new goals which … (to appear, appears, appear) in science progress, and enlargement of court psychology knowledge application in court … (practice, practise, praktice).

Task 17. Read the text and choose the best variant of answers to the questions:

Criminal behaviour is a complex, complicated phenomenon which is an effect of many causes. Nevertheless, its complexity does not mean impossibility of its study. Much attention is paid to typical features in certain criminal categories, their individual psychological features integrated in the type of criminal behaviour. Social and biological factors do not determine criminal behaviour as themselves but being integrated in criminal's personality and reflecting general behaviour types.

Criminal behaviour differs from social positive behaviour by its content and psycho-regulative specials. Most criminals' behaviour is characterized by social and evaluation non-adaptation and defects in self-regulation. If a person has a low self-regulation, his anti-social determination and habits are not controlled and become goal-forming mechanisms.

Criminal behaviour is based on the absence of individual social responsibility through the mechanism of protecting self-justifying motivation and a lack of social ideals, principles and norms. In human behaviour regulation, there is a constant interrelation of conscious and unconscious, rational and emotional components. In criminal behaviour development, there are factors presupposing individual ways of progress and emotional and volitional abilities.

Behaviour includes interconnection of personal and situational factors. It contains individual experience and subjective forecasts of development in the situation, its consequences. It shows individual evaluation of these possible consequences. When a person forecasts future situations, their consequences, according to S.L. Rubinstein, he brings the future as a determinant of his behaviour.

In some cases a person can make decisions without analysis of different variants of actions, without proper planning because of the defects in self-regulation. A criminal can make decisions consciously rejecting social consequences of his behaviour, but at the same time he could not forecast them or does not think that they are important.

Questions:

1) Is criminal behaviour a complex or a simple notion?

a) It is a complex and complicated notion

b) It is a simple notion

c) It is not a complex phenomenon

2) What are the main items in studying criminal behaviour?

a) criminal's individual features of character

b) crime statistics

c) typical features in different kinds of criminal behaviour

3) What determines criminal behaviour?

a) social and biological factors

b) social and biological factors integrated in criminal's personality

c) general behaviour types

4) What separates criminal and social positive behaviour?

a) individual special features

b) content and psychological regulation mechanisms

c) tolerance and conformity

5) What is the characteristic feature of most criminal types of behaviour?

a) non-adaptive processes in social, evaluation criteria and self-regulation

b) lack of self-regulation

c) absence of social and evaluation adaptation

6) What can be the basis of criminal behaviour?

a) self-justifying motivation

b) non-conformity

c) absence of responsibility

7) Does a criminal think about consequences of his crime?

a) A criminal always understands the consequences of his crime and rejects them consciously

b) He can forecast and understand social consequences or can not think about them

c) A criminal can not think about consequences as he is too busy with planning a crime

8) What are S.L. Rubinstein's ideas about criminal behaviour?

a) future consequences do not influence criminal behaviour

b) criminal behaviour is a complex phenomenon

c) future actions and consequences comprehended by a criminal determine criminal behaviour

9) What can defects in self-regulation lead to?

a) to making decisions without proper analysis and planning

b) to defects in self-esteem

c) to committing a crime

10) Can a criminal reject consciously the social consequences of his actions?

a) No, he can't.

b) It depends on the individual and situation.

c) Yes, he can

Task 18. Read the text and say whether the statements are true or false, correct false statements:

All intentional crimes could be divided into three groups on regulation ability criterion: 1) purposeful crimes, 2) crimes as self-goals, 3) crimes as mechanisms to achieve other goals. The first group is represented by crimes aimed at realization of personal interests (financial profit, career, revenge, impulsive satisfaction of sexual desire, etc.). The second group crimes are connected to criminal's satisfaction from the process of committing a crime (vandalism, hooliganism, negligence, criminal inaction). First two groups are concerned with person's absolute individualism and egoism. The third group of crimes is committed not for selfishness but because of wrong social interests. For example, red tape and bribes could represent this group.

Anti-social behaviour is determined not only by rational or conscious picture of reality but also by a mechanism of behavioral stereotypes. Anti-social habits are socially dangerous semi-automatic actions which are not comprehended by a person as anti-social. These actions are impulsive, they are latent determinations to break law under some circumstances. Anti-social habits could be ruled but the degree of this control differs from individual to individual. Low self-regulation leads to uncontrolled criminal actions and their becoming goals of behaviour.

Many crimes are connected to criminal situation when the circumstances provoke a crime. Each person has a conceptual scheme of behaviour in typical situations. The lower the level of psychological self-regulation the more important situational circumstances are. Mature criminals are characterized by situational determination of their behaviour.

Statements:

1) According to a regulation ability criterion all crimes are separated into four groups.

2) The groups of intentional crimes are purposeful crimes, crimes as self-goals and crimes for crime's sake.

3) Revenge and financial profit are crimes committed to achieve other goals.

4) Such crimes as vandalism and hooliganism are committed for crime's sake.

5) The third group of crimes, i.e. crimes as mechanisms to achieve other goals, is concerned with person's selfishness.

6) The first group of crimes is effected by criminal's wrong social interests.

7) Red tape is an example of purposeful crimes.

8) Anti-social behaviour is determined by conscious choice.

9) Anti-social habits are semi-automatic actions aimed at social inequality.

10) The degree of control over anti-social habits differs in different people.

11) There are no such circumstances to provoke a crime.

12) Each person has a stable system of behaviour in typical situations.

Task 19. Read an abstract and put proper words into the blanks. Make use of the given list of words:

In majority of cases difficult situations could be solved by … (1) ways. But lawful ways are not realized in dangerous or … (2) situations as either they are not considered proper or they are … (3) in individual behavioral system.

The less an individual is … (4) in the society and the more complicated the conflict situation … (5), the more possible a criminal … (6) becomes.

At the same time, human behaviour is not effected … (7) by the circumstances. Outer circumstances interrelate with inner conditions. These … (8) items could not act isolated and provoke a crime, they work in … (9), but could not determine criminal behaviour completely.

Words: cooperation, complex, behaviour, is, lawful, included, directly, absent, two.

Unit XII. Consumer Psychology

Task 1. Read the text “Consumer Psychology” and translate it into Russian:

Consumer Psychology (by Robert Perloff)

Consumer psychology is a branch of applied psychology concerned with questions about the optimal means for making goods and services available, providing information about them, developing and testing methods for promoting interest in their acquisition, and investigating how they might be consumed with maximum satisfaction and benefit to the customer.

From the broadest point of view, consumer psychology is concerned with individual's behavioral expressions of value – that is, the ways in which he or she spends his time and money. These range from candy and toothpaste to savings for college education, from spending a few hours viewing television or reading a newspaper to the philatelist's absorption with old and rare stamps. Therefore, whatever an individual consumes – however he uses his time or spends his money – is an object for study by the consumer psychologist.

A consumer psychologist is concerned with the psychological determinants of the individual's behaviour as a consumer. An important distinction is made between high and low involvement consumer decisions. When decisions have high personal importance or relevance, like the purchase of a clothing outfit to be worn on a special occasion, consumers typically engage in an extensive search for information that incorporates not only input from advertising sources but careful appraisals of anticipated reactions from others in their reference group. While high involvement choices activate extensive problem-solving behaviour, low involvement choices, such as the purchase of an inexpensive ballpoint pen, are more impulsive, reflecting such factors as brand recognition. The shape and colour of the package, or its position in a display case, will have a greater impact on low involvement decisions.

Beyond marketing research, consumer psychologists have been called upon to study the consumer's attitudes toward and the means for influencing his acceptance of devices or behaviour that are generally considered to be in his best interest, particularly in the fields of health and safety. Among many illustrations of this relatively new area of study are the individual's responses to seat belts in automobiles as well as his attitudes concerning air pollution, smoking, and other health hazards.

A consumer psychologist may also be consulted for studies aimed at understanding how attitudes may be changed (from Коваленко 2002).

Task 2. Translate the words and word combinations into Russian:

1) applied psychology; 2) to promote; 3) acquisition; 4) savings for college education; 5) involvement consumer decisions; 6) reference group; 7) brand recognition; 8) consumer's attitude toward; 9) seat belts; 10) health hazard.

Task 3. In the text find English equivalents to the Russian words:

1) товары и услуги; 2) потребитель; 3) проводить время; 4) потреблять; 5) покупка; 6) оценка ожидаемых реакций; 7) маркетинговое исследование; 8) относительно новая область изучения; 9) загрязнение воздуха; 10) отношение к чему-либо.

Task 4. In the text find synonyms to the following words:

1) subdivision; 2) ways; 3) using, application; 4) consumer; 5) to differ; 6) sweets; 7) relevance; 8) to buy; 9) evaluation; 10) influence.

Task 5. In the table match antonyms:

Task 6. Translate the sentences into Russian:

1) Toyota tries to promote its automobiles as the best in their class.

2) Higher education in our country is free of charge. That's why there is no need to have savings for college education as they do in Western countries.

3) According to transport rules, seat belts should be used not only on the first seats but also on the back.

4) Goods and services of our company are of the highest quality.

5) How do you spend your free time?

6) Marketing research in promoting food products in Japan is very important for our firm.

7) Artificial intelligence is a relatively new area of study.

8) Air pollution is of everybody's concern.

9) What is your attitude to smoking?

Task 7. Answer the questions:

1) What is the definition of consumer psychology?

2) Does consumer psychology deal with behavioral expression of value?

3) What is the distinction made within involvement consumer decisions?

4) What is an example of high involvement consumer decision?

5) What does a person do in the case of high involvement consumer decision?

6) What are the characteristic features of low involvement choices?

7) What are consumer psychologist's goals except marketing research?

8) What are the new areas of study in consumer psychology?

Task 8. Say whether the following statements are true or false, correct false statements:

1) Consumer psychology does not deal with providing information about goods and services.

2) The object of study in consumer psychology is examining in what way an individual spends his time and money.

3) If a person has low involvement consumer decision he analyses every detail of the future purchase.

4) Possible reactions from the reference group do not matter in the case of high involvement consumer decisions.

5) Brand recognition is extremely important in low involvement consumer decisions.

6) The shape and colour of package is equally important in high as well as low involvement choices.

7) A person is not influenced when it comes to health and safety.

Task 9. Read an abstract and choose proper words from the brackets to fit in the blanks (from Коваленко 2002):

Applications of Consumer Psychology

Since the techniques and procedures for conducting consumer research are very … (same, similar, similarly) to those used in opinion research or public opinion polling, psychologists engaged in … (consumer, consume, consumers) research are often engaged in public opinion studies as … (good, better, well). Opinion research is supported by foundations, government … (agencies, agency, agents), universities, the mass media, political organizations, and … (individual, individualism, individuals) and organizations hoping to shed light on social problems, propaganda, and group behaviour.

Rarely does the consumer psychologist operate … (alone, along, alarm). Because consumer behaviour is interdisciplinary, it is common to find him … (works, working, rest) in the same office with advertising copywriters or account executives, public relations … (expert, expertise, experts), statisticians specializing in sampling and survey research, experts in marketing … (reserch, resirch, research), economists, and sociologists.

The heaviest use of consumer psychology occurs in business and … (industry, industries, industrious), principally by advertising agencies, the mass media, private consumer marketing and public opinion research firms, and manufacturers … (itself, themselves, himself). Of particular importance is market segmentation research, which seeks to … (identifies, identified, identify) the needs, preferences, and perceptions of significant subgroups – socioeconomic, racial, and … (athnic, ethnic, ethnik) – that collectively account for larger heterogeneous … (social, socialist, society) systems. The process by which … (news, neo, innovations), like new products, diffuse and succeed, or fail to attract consumer's interest, are receiving increased attention.

Task 10. Read an abstract and put words into blanks. Choose the words from the given list (from Коваленко 2002):

On the more macroscopic level, the consumer psychologist may … (1) to assay what has come to be known as the “image” that one public group or another may have of a … (2), an agency of the government, or even of an educational … (3). Perhaps a nationally known manufacturer of appliances … (4) in determining the effect a large strike had upon its image.

Consumer psychology is attracting students and developing its own … (5). Consumer activities are becoming integrated into all … (6) of government. Manufacturer, advertising media, educational institutions, hospitals, and communities are all … (7) in terms of their public image, seeking to improve the way they are being looked at.

Words: business firm, is interested, thinking, be invited, literature, institution, phases.

Task 11. Read the text and choose the best variant of answers to the questions:

I'd rather be with people (by M.K. Flynn)

Personal-training software can't give me that personal touch.

A year ago February, when the body I thought of as a trim size 6 unexpectedly demanded a size 10 dress, I turned to Weight Watchers and to the New York Road Runners Club for inspiration. The prep-rally atmosphere really worked: by June, I'd dropped 15 pounds and was running 15 miles a week. Last month, 5 pounds plumper after a lazy winter, the tech writer and me decided to see if new fitness software could prod me back on track. I knew what I wanted – an electronic personal trainer, on call 24 hours a day. It would figure out how fit I was, recommend an exercise regimen customized to my age (32), height (5 feet, 1 inch) and weight (then 116), and track my progress over time. Alas, I didn't find it. I could accomplish all three tasks, but I'd need three separate programs.

The two I found that promised to gauge my fitness level let me down in different ways. Mayo Clinic Sports Health and Fitness is a basic reference that goes from defining aerobic conditioning to explaining the food pyramid, with video clips on the proper form of exercises. The newly health conscious would probably find it instructive, but the bulk of the information was non-news to me. By contrast, Your Personal Fitness Trainer seemed too sophisticated. I couldn't complete the fitness assessment without a professional trainer or doctor to measure my body fat – nor did I have the required weighted barbells or foot-high step.

Whew. Mayo's test of my fitness was fun, but the results were disappointing – and not, it turns out, because I'm fit. After answering questions about my medical history and lifestyle, I had to run 1.5 miles as fast as possible (14 minutes) and perform as many sit-ups (30) and push-ups (20) as I could without stopping. Startled by my “low” overall grade and my “average” score for cardiovascular health, I consulted the software maker. We discovered a programming bug that the publisher didn't know about; I did deserve a “high” cardiovascular mark after all, for example.

While it won't assess fitness, Multimedia Workout will tailor a regimen to the users height, weight, sex, age, metabolism and activity. The calculus for me: I can eat 1,824 calories a day to maintain my weight; to lose half a pound per week, I can consume 1,731 calories if I promise to exercise slightly more. The program provides the nutritional content of 5,000 foods, and, if you type in what you eat, will alert you when you're short of vitamin C, say, or eating too much fat.

The weight-lifting coaches at my gym are generally so swamped that I really appreciated the program's on-screen demonstrations. Click on the upper arm of an anatomical drawing, and up pops a list of bicep machines and lifts for free weights. Click on the video icon, and a trainer demonstrates the proper form for the hammer curl, say, or the preacher bench curl. Want to try hammer curls? The program recommends a starting weight and number of repetitions. I was assigned six reps using 80 pounds.

None of these programs makes it easy to review your progress. The best one I've seen for logging time-distance events like running or swimming is designed to do only that: Bill Rodgers' Win Trainer. For each workout, you can record the temperature, hours of sleep the night before and even your mood as well as your time and distance. You can then see in graph form how you've improved, for example, or how cold, or hit, or lack of sleep affects your time. You can even track your shoes' mileage in case you need help remembering when it's time for a new pair.

After a month of playing with these programs – only 2 pounds slimmer and still exercising sporadically – I've concluded that software can't provide me what I need most: the support of like-minded people. Maybe I'll try out the online services, where runners, mountain bikers and even snorkelers can encourage each other (from US News 1995).

Questions:

1) Why did the author turn to Weight Watchers?

a) she gained weight

b) she wanted to buy a dress

c) she was lonely

2) When did she turn to the New York Road Runners Club?

a) a week ago in February

b) a year ago in March

c) a year ago in February

3) For how long did she train in the Road Runners Club?

a) fifteen months

b) five months

c) fifteen miles

4) What does she want to have to become fit?

a) electronic personal trainer

b) personal trainer

c) a companion to run in the mornings

5) What was the drawback of Mayo Clinic Sports Health and Fitness?

a) it was too informative

b) it was for beginners only

c) it did not contain video clips with exercises

6) What was the disadvantage in Your Personal Fitness Trainer?

a) it was not on-line for 24 hours

b) it was too expensive

c) it was too difficult to follow all instructions

7) What was her result according to Mayo's test?

a) discouraging

b) excellent

c) poor

8) What did Multimedia Workout suggested?

a) to eat less meat

b) to exercise three times a week

c) nutritional programme and advice on exercises

9) Were there any positive items in the programmes?

a) video demonstrations of different exercises

b) advice on food programmes

c) advice on surgery invasion

10) Which of the programmes could show progress?

a) Your Personal Fitness Trainer

b) Mayo Clinic Sports Health and Fitness

c) Bill Rogers' Win Trainer

11) Does she like Bill Rodgers' Win Trainer?

a) she loves it absolutely

b) partially, but she is more ironical about it

c) she does not like it at all

12) What did she decide after trying all these programmes?

a) to go to the gym

b) to live on a diet

c) to find like-minded people to encourage her

Task 12. Read abstracts and answer questions (from US News 1995):

1) Do you need an allergy medicine that unstuffs your nose?

Ask your doctor about new Flonase from Glaxo: it relieves sneezing and itchy, runny nose – and your stuffy nose as well. Flonase works where you need it, in your nose. It's a new nasal spray that relieves nasal symptoms for sufferers of seasonal nasal allergies. You can take Flonase once a day. Flonase unstuffs your nose for a full of 24 hours. Flonase won't put you asleep and it won't keep you awake. Flonase doesn't subject you to the drowsiness, sleeplessness, or nervousness associated with some antihistamines and decongestants. Flonase is not addictive. Flonase is comfortable to use. The most common side effects occurred in fewer than 7 of 100 people (comparable to placebo). These included nasal burning, nosebleeds, and sore throat. Flonase is a prescription drug, and its effectiveness depends on regular use. Flonase is not used to treat children under age 12. Only your doctor or health care professional can determine the best treatment option for you. No advertisement can provide all the information needed to prescribe a drug.

2) The better way. Clairol Men's Choice vs. Just For Men. They both blend away gray in only 5 minutes. But that's where the similarity ends. Clairol Men's Choice offers superior conditioning that Just For Men just doesn't have. Clairol Men's Choice comes in a thick gel form. And Clairol Men's Choice is gentler than Just For Men. With all the know how of the hair color experts… Clairol, of course. It's the better way to blend away gray.

3) After my stroke, I thought I'd never play again. I didn't think it could happen to me. My doctor said I had a small stroke. He called it a TIA. But that didn't make the numbness in my arm and hand any less frightening. Then he said a regimen of aspirin, along with the right diet and exercise, could reduce my risk of another stroke significantly. Naturally I'm taking pure BAYER Aspirin now. Because there's still so much more music in me waiting to be played. Ask your doctor how BAYER Aspirin can help you. For a free booklet of information about stroke and heart attack prevention, call 1-800-332-2253.

4) Actually, there already is a package of health benefits available to all Americans. They're debating health care in Washington, but the fact is, excellent health benefits are already widely available – in every container of 100% pure Florida Orange Juice.

Each eight-ounce glass of Florida Orange Juice has a full day's supply of vitamin C. That's important for everything from healthy skin to resisting infection. Vitamin C is also an antioxidant that may help reduce the risk of some types of cancer, when parts of a high-fiber, low-fat diet rich in fruits and vegetables.

It's also a good source of potassium, a mineral that is necessary in order for muscles to function normally.

On top of that, orange juice is fat-free, cholesterol-free and sodium-free.

So while the politicians continue to debate health care, there's at least one thing you can do to take care of yourself.

5) Itching eyes. Sneezing. Sinus pain and pressure. Only Drixoral Allergy Sinus fights all of your worst symptoms for 12 hours. It lasts twice as long as Benadryl or Tylenol Allergy Sinus. And it's more complete relief than Tavist-D. It's the most complete long-lasting relief you can buy. So you'll feel better longer. Take Drixoral. Fight harder.

Questions:

1) What style do these abstracts belong to?

2) Which abstracts are advertisements of medicines?

3) What medicines are against allergy?

4) What is advertised in the second abstract?

5) Why is orange juice so healthful?

6) Which abstract has a reference to a call-centre?

7) Which ads have a comparison of products?

8) Which of the products are not prescribed for children?

9) Which of the ads give the possible duration of the effect?

10) Which of the products are cholesterol-free?

Task 13. Translate an abstract into English:

Обычно людей раздражают постоянные рекламные ролики, появляющиеся посреди любимой телепередачи или повторяемые сто раз за час по радио. Однако стоит обратить внимание на то, что как бы нам не нравилось это «засилье рекламы», мы постоянно следуем ей: выбираем Pepsi, читаем ТВ-парк, покупаем телевизоры Sony и т.д.

Причем одна реклама действует на нас более эффективно, чем другая. Каждый человек объясняет этот парадокс по-своему. Но существует также и научная точка зрения, основанная на многолетних исследованиях, что делает ее более предпочтительной перед ненаучной, хотя нельзя с уверенностью сказать, что она является правильной.

Реклама играет жизненно важную роль как стимулятор экономического роста. Ее можно считать так же развлекательной стороной жизни, а многие из творений специалистов по рекламе относятся к подлинным произведениям искусства.

С середины 20 века применение массового психоанализа в рекламе стало основой деятельности торговых компаний. Специалисты по рекламе ухватились за психоанализ в попытке найти более эффективные средства для сбыта своих товаров, будь то продукты, идеи, отношения, кандидаты, цели или душевное состояние.

Один специалист по рекламе однажды сказал, что женщины платят за крем во много раз дороже, чем за мыло, потому что мыло сулит им только чистоту, а крем – красоту. Люди покупают не ланолин – а надежду, не апельсины – а жизненную силу, не автомобили – а престиж.

Task 14. Read the text and say whether the statements are true or false, correct false statements:

The discussion will be on an eating disorder, Anorexia Nervosa, a huge concern of our society. It is caused by a mixture of social, psychological and physical problems. It consists of various conditions which involve an obsession with food, weight and appearance to the degree where person's health, relationships and everyday activities are threatened to fail.

Statistics is dramatic. Anorexia became more common in developing countries in the past twenty years. 50% of Anorexics recover fully, another 20% recover only physically and reported mortality rate is 20%. Each year approximately one out of every two hundred females adolescents become anorexic. About 90-95% of all people who suffer from Anorexia Nervosa are females. The most vulnerable to this eating disorder are the ambitious, achieving girls and women between 12 and 25. However, in industrialized countries, the conditions are becoming more prevalent in all age groups and both sexes. The main trait of anorexia is when body weight is more than 15% lower than the expected one. It is caused by the fear of gaining weight that embraces excessive preoccupation with food and abnormal eating habits.

Basically, it is an addiction that results in successive changes in mind and body. The progress of these changes follows predictable path from health to mental and physical devastation. This addiction is a result of self-starvation process. It means that a group of substances called endorphins is produced in the body which brings to addiction. These substances play major role in causing behavioral and mental changes characteristic of this condition and are responsible for perpetuating and maintaining anorectic behaviour throughout all stages of addictive process.

The addiction concept of Anorexia Nervosa is made of two principles: the first states that majority of anorexic actions like behaviour and thinking are governed by the mechanism of reward. A person will self-administer by engaging in such behaviour whereas a non-addictive substance will not cause a person to continue automatically self-administration in order to get some pleasant experience. The second approach says that there is a direct causative relationship between the state of eating and the state of mood and feelings. Non-eating and weight loss promote a sense of well-being or improvement of depressed mood via release of endorphins.

There are two types of Anorexia Nervosa. The first is a simple restriction of food. People usually starve despite the hunger pains that they suffer. The second type includes restriction of food and regular purging. It is done by means of laxatives, appetite suppressants or even self-induced vomiting.

Anorexia Nervosa is a very complex disease. A wide variety of reasons underlie it. Most specialists agree that dieting is the basic entry line to disorder. Anorexics could be divided into two groups. First consists of those with concerns related to their weight. The second group is represented by people who have problem relations with oneself and others. The disorder is further complicated when braided with the social demand to put great emphasis on appearance and thinness. But generally it is nothing but the outcome of chronically depressed mood and constitutional inability to maintain an internal equilibrium.

Anorexia more often affects women. Men are affected less, partly because it is believed that it is not suitable for a man who is not a gay to be over-concerned with his body. It is common that women magazines usually have ten times as many advertisements and articles on weight loss than men's do. They make females bring back thoughts about their weight over and over again. Nowadays, mankind is bombarded by thousands of images of young, beautiful and extremely thin models smiling from everywhere: TV-screens, press and publicity boards. They make women think that each can achieve such thinness on a cost of a bit of suffering. Women may start correlating model's success to their slim bodies. It can mislead to an idea that desired success is impossible without thinness.

Anorexia Nervosa is a very complex disease that can affect almost anyone when influenced by certain surrounding situations. It occurs when someone looses control over dieting and becomes obsessed with food, weight, body size and shape. The main triggering factor is our society promoting thinness and putting excessive emphasis on appearance. It makes people want to conform to unrealistically thin models and in order to slim fall to starvation. Some will recover, some will stay marked by Anorexia Nervosa, and others will die (from US News 1995).

Statements:

1) Anorexia Nervosa is a psychological disorder.

2) Anorexia is widely spread in developed countries.

3) The majority suffering from Anorexia are males.

4) Anorexia Nervosa is based on the fear of gaining weight.

5) Anorexia is caused by starvation due to bad political and economic conditions.

6) Endorphins are responsible for behavioral and mental changes when a person eats more than it is necessary.

7) There is no direct causative relation between eating and mood.

8) There is only one type of this disorder when people restrict food.

9) The basic way to enter Anorexia is dieting.

10) There are three types of Anorexics: people concerning their weight, people with problem relations with others, and people with low self-esteem.

11) Thinness is promoted as the ideal of beauty in mass media.

12) People can recover from Anorexia Nervosa totally in a month.