CONTRACTS

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 621.

Asia

UNIT 17

Summarize the text in a paragraph of about 200 words.

In the late 20th century Asia had about three-fifths of the world's pop­ulation. Asia is a continent with striking differences in its population distribution. All of Siberia and Central Asia and parts of Southwest Asia are relatively sparsely inhabited, but the Indian subcontinent and East Asia are densely populated. Southeast Asia is intermediate between these two extremes in the density of its population. Asian peoples have tended to settle in river valleys where soil is fertile. About 70 percent of the continent's population is rural, but there has been a rapid migration from rural to urban areas in the 20th century; this trend has tended to strain services and cause severe housing shortages.

In terms of their number of speakers, the basic language groups or languages in Asia are Sino-Tibetan, Indo-Aryan, Japanese, Austrone-sian, Austro-Asiatic, Semitic, Turkic, Iranian, and Korean. East Asia is one of the most densely populated parts of Asia and contains only three main ethnic groups: Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.

Asia is the birthplace of all of the world's major religions and hun­dreds of minor ones. Hinduism is the oldest of several religions that originated in South Asia, and Jainism and Buddhism emerged in the 6th and 5th centuries ВС, respectively. Taoism and Confucianism, both of which originated in the 6th or 5th century ВС, have pro-foundly influenced Chinese and Chinese-de rived culture.

Historically the culture of Asia is the result of the interaction of five main influences: Chinese, Indians, European, and Central Asian. China has modeled the civilization of such East Asian countries as Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, and it has also been a primary influence

²⁰

on Mongolia, Tibet, Thailand, Cambodia, and Myanmar. Wherever Chinese influence exerted itself, it introduced Confucianism, a dis­tinctive style of art, and above all, the Chinese script. ³⁰ Indian influence has expressed itself through the religions of Hin­duism and Buddhism. These religions have carried with them Indian art and literature and often Indian alphabet, as in Tibet, parts of In­donesia, and Cambodia. Indian influences have also affected the peo­ples of Central Asia and Southeast Asia, and Buddhism spread even ³⁵ in China and Japan.

Central Asia was the region into and through which all the afore­mentioned influences .penetrated. Thus, through Central Asia Greek influences and later Islam penetrated India, and Buddhism passed from India into East and Southeast Asia.

⁴⁰ Asia, according to evidence discovered since the mid-20th centu­ry, has been displaced by sub-Saharan Africa as the cradle of humani­ty. Nevertheless, Homo erectus hominids appeared in East Asia at least one million years ago, having migrated from Africa. These mi­grants, or perhaps later migrants of anatomically modern Homo sapi-⁴⁵ ens, are the ancestors of modern Asian peoples. It is also widely thought that Asian peoples migrated into North and South America during the glacial epochs.

The origins, development, and diffusion of food production in Asia is complicated by contemporary evidence challenging the tra-⁵⁰ ditional view of the Middle East as the cultural hearth. Hunting and gathering gave way to farming and pastoralism in this region be­tween 8500 and 7000 ВС. Domesticated sheep, goats, and cattle ap­peared in eastern Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan between 9000 and 6000 ВС. Evidence of horticulture exists in Thailand (c. 10,000 ⁵⁵ ВС) and on Taiwan (c. 9000 ВС). Throughout East and Southeast Asia people were cultivating millet, buckwheat, beans, and probably rice by 2500 ВС.

One of the earliest civilizations to use writing developed in the Ti­gris and Euphrates river valleys between 3500 and 3000 ВС. Civiliza-⁶⁰ tion in the Indus Valley and in northern Syria followed about 2500 ВС. The South Chinese and Southeast Asians developed maritime skills, and by about 2500 ВС sea trade probably extended as far west as Bengal. Chinese urban civilization began with the Shang dynasty (traditionally, с 1766-1122 ВС) and continued under the Chou (c.

1122-221 ВС), who absorbed much of the Shang, and developed the ⁶⁵ Chinese social and cultural patterns still recognized today. Indo-Euro­pean-speaking peoples (Aryans), who introduced the horse, began to invade India from the west about 1700 ВС, contributing to the de­struction of the Bronze Age civilization of the Indus Valley; they also ruled as the Kassites of Mesopotamia. Developing the Vedic culture, ^7U they introduced iron to India around the 7th or 6th century ВС. The Vedic period was succeeded by a plethora of dynasties and states, in­cluding the Mauryan empire (c. 321 — c. 185 ВС).

By the latter date urban civilizations had become firmly estab­lished in Asia, their economies based then as now primarily on agri­culture. A succession of empires and charismatic tribal rulers united tribes and states, spreading their political mantles as far as military power, diplomacy and duplicity, and marital alliances could carry them. A few such individuals left lasting monuments — or ruins — on the landscape. Alexander the Great conquered the Persian em­pire and smashed through Afghanistan, moving successfully into Central Asia and down the Punjab in the 4th century ВС. Hellenism resulted; Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms lasted well into the 1st century ВС, and Buddhism, after being influenced by Greco-Roman humanism, spread along the Silk Road between China and ⁸⁵ the Mediterranean. Trade, by land and sea, prospered between East and West Asia during the period of Greek and Roman control of the Middle East. Christianity arose during this time in Palestine and spread. More influential in Asia was the rise of Islam in the 7th cen­tury AD, challenging the ideals and power of the Christian Byzan- ⁹⁰ tine Empire. In the 13th century Genghis Khan and his Mongol successors united most of Asia under their rule, controlling China, Central Asia, much of Southwest Asia, and parts of eastern Europe. In the 14th century Timur (Tamerlane) conquered an area that ex­tended from Mongolia to the Mediterranean, and he fostered a cul- ⁹⁵ tural renaissance in Central Asia. China received cultural stimula­tion from its perennial conflicts with nomads beyond the Great Wall. In the 15th century Muslim Turks destroyed the remnants of the Byzantine Empire and established a Middle Eastern empire that endured into the 20th century.

Political insecurity, particularly after the Turco-Mongol invasions, interrupted commerce on the Silk Road and sent European navigators

around the South African cape in search of new routes to the East. Be­ginning in the 19th century, European imperialism began to replace Asian imperialism, either by colonizing areas or by controlling them through zones of influence. Tsarist Russia drove to the Pacific Ocean, conquering the hunter-fishers of Siberia and the ancient Muslim khanates of Central Asia. The British gained control of the Indian sub­continent; the French moved into Indochina; the Dutch occupied the East Indies; and the Spanish ruled the Philippines until the United States took over after the Spanish-American War. China, culturally and politically introverted, was unable to resist foreign domination in the 19th and 20th centuries. Japan at first moved slowly from its self-imposed isolation, but it then moved rapidly to an imperialism that ¹¹⁵ was ultimately ended by military defeat in World War II.

TASKS

17.1 Answer the following questions to check how well you have read the text:

1. How large is the population of Asia? How is it distributed on the
continent? Where have Asiatic people tended to settle? What lan­
guages are spoken in Asia?

2. What does the culture of Asia result from? What religions originated
in Asia?

3. When did the first Homo sapiens appear in Asia? What was the
main occupation of the early inhabitants of Asia? Can you say some
words about each of them?

4. When and where did the first civilizations come into existence? Can
you say some words about each of them?

5. How did the history of Asia develop in the first centuries AD?

6. Who left lasting monuments in Asia? What are those individuals
known for?

7. How did Asiatic countries develop after the Turco-Mongol inva­
sion?

17.2 Transcribe the following words. Pay attention to the stress.

epoch___________________ absorbed_____________________

diplomacy

17.3 Give English-Russian equivalents of the following expressions:

the cradle of humanity; в соответствии с; Homo erectus homin-ids; to give way to; предки современных людей; evidence of horti­culture; ледниковые периоды; a succession of empires; поколебать традиционное представление; marital alliances; вожди племен; the rise of Islam; культурное возрождение; to challenge the ideals; первые цивилизации; perennial conflicts; получит контроль над; the remnants of the Byzantine Empire; political insecurity; ино­странное господство; imposed isolation; military defeat

17.4 Fill in the gaps in the following passage with a (an), the, some, or leave
them blank, if required:

From entire obscurity ... Mongols came very suddenly into ... his­tory towards ... close of... twelfth century. They appeared in ... coun­try north of... China, in ... land of origin of... Huns and Turks. They were gathered together under a chief; under his son Genghis Khan their power grew with ... extraordinary swiftness.

... Mongol aggression was the greatest of all... raids of... nomad­ism upon ... civilizations of... East and ... West. It is generally known that as... civilizations grew more extensive and better organized, ... arms, ... mobility, and ... intelligence of... nomads also improved. ... nomad was not simply ... uncivilized man. He was... man specializ­ing along his own line.

... Mongols were ... horde of... nomadic horsemen living in ... tents and subsisting mainly upon ... mare's milk products and ... meat. Their occupations were ... pasturage and ... hunting, varied by ... war. They drifted northwards as ... snows melted for ... summer pasture, and southward to ... winter pasture, after... custom of... steppes.

UNIT 18

Africa

Africa is the second largest continent on Earth. From north to south, it is divided by the Equator. The continent is bounded on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, on the west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and on the south by the conflu-

⁵ ence of the Atlantic and Indian oceans off the Cape of Good Hope. In the north-east, Africa was joined to Asia by the Sinai Peninsula until the construction of the Suez Canal. There are a number of islands as­sociated with Africa; the largest of these, lying to the south-east, is Madagascar. The peoples inhabiting Africa probably speak more sep-

¹⁰ arate and distinct languages than those of any other continent.

Human beings are widely thought to have originated in Africa. In much of the continent about 25 to 15 million years ago there were various forms of the Dryopithecine apes believed by some scientists to be common ancestors of humans and recent apes. The oldest-known

¹⁵ hominids, members of the genus Australopithecus (which have been found in the Far East and southern Africa), date from perhaps as ear­ly as 8 million years ago. The hominids Homo habilis and Homo erectus inhabited large areas of Africa before and during the Pleis­tocene epoch, and archaic forms of Homo sapiens began appearing

²" some 500,000 to 300,000 years ago. By the end of the Pleistocene, distinct African races of modern humans had emerged.

Africa's first great historical kingdom, that of Egypt, arose along the Nile, and, from its unification in approximately 3000 ВС, it flourished for nearly 3000 years. With the Sumerian kingdom of Mes-

²⁵ opotamia and the ancient dynasties of China, Egypt constitutes one of the major cradles of civilization. The Phoenicians established a

colony at Carthage (in present-day Tunisia), which outstripped Phoe­nicia itself and controlled the western Mediterranean for nearly 600 years. The whole of North Africa fell to the Romans after 146 ВС, and its legacy lasted until the Arab Islamic invasions beginning in the 7th century AD.

Trading empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, kola nuts, and slaves developed in western Africa. The first empire of which there is extant knowledge was Ghana, with its capital at Kumbi, which flourished from the 5th to the 1 lth century AD. During the ³⁵ same period came the rise of the empire of Kanem-Bornu around Lake Chad, which reached the height of its power in the 17th century. Muslim empires to the west also flourished; the greatest of these were the Mali (c. 1250-1400) and its successor, the Songhai of Gao (c. 1400-1591).

In eastern and central Africa the emphasis was greater on trade with countries beyond Africa, particularly Arabia. By the 13th centu­ry, East African-Arab settlements had developed into powerful city-states: Mogadishu, Mombasa, Lamu, Kilwa, and others. In the 16th century, they were destroyed by the Portuguese who in turn were oust- ⁴⁵ ed by the Omani Arabs; the Omanis established the slave-trading state of Zanzibar.

To the south was the Bantu-speaking empire of Mwene Matapa, and other dynasties arose inland from the East African coast. The kingdom of the Kongo was located near the mouth of the Congo Riv- ⁵⁰ er, and others lay farther south.

Most of these empires depended on long-distance trade. They were weakened and in many cases destroyed by the early colonial powers from Europe and Arabia that coveted their trade and sup­planted them, turning much of the trade to external rather than in- ⁵⁵ ternal markets and creating new trade goods, notably slaves. The number of slaves actually taken from Africa probably numbered about 10,000,000.

The Portuguese were the first Europeans to undertake systematic voyages of discovery along the African coast (15th century). The Dutch presence in South Africa dates from 1652, but European ex­ploration of the interior was carried out mainly in the 19th century by such British explorers as Sir Richard Burton, John Hanning Speke, David Livingstone, and Henry Morton Stanley.

⁶⁵ Before the last two decades of the 19th century, Europe showed lit­tle interest in colonizing Africa. Where climate permitted Europeans to settle permanently, the French had established themselves in Alge­ria and the British in the Cape Colony and in Natal. Elsewhere, Eu­ropean colonies were confined to coastal enclaves, often legacies of

⁷⁰ slave-trading days. By 1884, however, the European powers had begun a scramble to partition Africa so that by 1920 every square mile ex­cept for Ethiopia, Liberia, and the Union of South Africa was under colonial rule or protection. Anticolonial and independence move­ments developed and became widespread after 1950, and, one by one,

⁷⁵ the colonies became independent.

.TASKS

18.1 Answer the following questions to check how carefully you have read the
text:

1. What is Africa? What seas and oceans wash Africa? What languages
do people speak in Africa?

2. Why is it believed that the human being originated in Africa? When
did the oldest-known hominids appear in Africa? When did distinct
African races of modern humans emerge?

3. Why is Africa considered to be one of the major cradles of civiliza­
tion? When did the Romans occupy North Africa? What people
possessed this territory in later centuries?

4. What empires were built in Africa? What did they depend upon?
How did eastern and central Africa develop?

5. When did Europeans start to colonise Africa? Where and when did
Europeans settle in Africa?

6. What happened by 1884? When did African colonies become inde­
pendent?

18.2 Transcribe the following words. Pay attention to the stress.

Equator______

Sinai Peninsula

Tunisia_______

Suez Canal___

Madagascar__

Dryopithecine__

Australopithecus

Mesopotamia __

Pleistocene ____

Phoenicians

18.4 Give English-Russian equivalents of the following expressions:

мыс Доброй Надежды; human beings; общие предки людей и человекообразных обезьян; to date from; to inhabit large areas; ледниковый период; the first great historical kingdom; Шумерское царство; to outstrip Phoenicia; колыбель цивилизации; the Roman

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UNIT 19

Australia

Australia, the smallest continent and one of the largest countries on Earth, lies between the Pacific and Indian oceans in the Southern Hemisphere. The capital is Canberra. Australia is separated from In­donesia in the northwest by the Timor and the Arafura seas; from Pa-⁵ pua New Guinea in the northeast by the Torres Strait; from the Coral Sea Islands Territory (in the Coral Sea), also in the northeast, by the Great Barrier Reef; from New Zealand in the southeast by the Tas-man Sea; and from Antarctica to the south by the Indian.

Australia is a federal state governed by a constitution adopted in

¹⁰ 1900. Symbolic executive power is vested in the British monarch, who is represented throughout Australia by the governor-general. The highest political authority rests with the democratically elected Par­liament, which consists of a 147-member House of Representatives and a 76-member Senate. The leader of the party or coalition that

¹⁵ wins a majority in the House becomes the prime minister and ap­points a cabinet. Both the prime minister and the cabinet are respon­sible to the Parliament. Three political parties usually dominate par­liamentary elections: the Australian Labor Party, the Liberal Party, and the National Party. The country's judicial system is headed by the seven-member High Court of Australia, which has the power of con­stitutional review.

The press in Australia is free from direct government censorship. The constitution does not guarantee press freedom, however, and the existence of a number of federal and state laws regulating the press

²⁵ sometimes has the effect of forcing Australian newspapers and maga­zines to practice self-censorship.

Australia has been inhabited by Aborigines for at least 40,000 — and perhaps as many as 60,000 — years. They immigrated from Southeast Asia, and estimates of the size of the Aboriginal population at the time of European settlement in 1788 range from 300,000 to more than 1,000,000. There is some evidence of a Chinese landing at the site of Darwin in 1432. Widespread European knowledge of Aus­tralia, however, began only with the explorations of the 17th century.

The Dutch landed in Australia in 1616 and, under such notable seamen as Abel Tasman, continued their explorations until 1644, when Australia became known as New Holland. The British arrived in 1688 under William Dampier, but they did not launch a large-scale expedition until James Cook's historic voyage of 1770 that resulted in Britain's claim to Australia and formal possession of New South Wales with the establishment of the small colony of Sydney Cove within Port Jackson (1788). From the outset, British convicts were transported to the colony.

Tasmania, the next settlement, received settlers from Sydney as early as 1803, and colonists arrived in Western Australia in 1827. By 1859 the colonial nuclei of all of Australia's six states had been formed. ⁴⁵ Convict transportation continued well into the 19th century.

The discovery of copper in 1842 and of payable gold deposits in 1851 spurred economic development. The development of sheep graz­ing helped establish Australia's wool industry but caused widespread displacement among the Aborigines whose native habitats fell into the ⁵⁰ hands of pastoralists.

A concern for national defense and intercolonial free trade and a desire to control European and Asian immigration (Australian-born made up 64.5 percent of the population in 1901) led to the federation movement of the late 1800s. Popular referenda were held in 1898- ⁵⁵ 1899, and the Commonwealth of Australia was proclaimed on Janu­ary 1, 1901. Canberra was designated the federal capital in 1908.

Australia fought alongside Britain in World War I, notably with the Australia and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) in the Darda­nelles campaign (1915). The date of the ANZAC landing at Gallipo-li — April 25 — was declared a national holiday in 1920. Prosperous years followed the end of the war until the worldwide depression of the 1930s brought deteriorating trading conditions. Also during this time, reserves were established for Aborigines.

I

World War II brought Australia closer to the United States; ties with Britain diminished, and, after 1942, the British Royal Navy ceased defending Australia. The Labor government was voted out in 1949; there followed Liberal-Country Party coalition rule. In 1972 Labor returned to power. A constitutional crisis came in 1975, when in an attempt to force new elections the Senate opposition blocked the government's budget proposals. The governor-general then inter­vened and dismissed the Labor government, appointing a Liberal prime minister. Labor returned to power in 1983 and retained its ma­jority in elections held in 1984, 1987, and 1990.

Since World War II Australia has assumed a leading role in Asian and Pacific affairs. Although it experienced some setbacks, the Ab­original movement grew in strength from the 1960s, and Aborigines succeeded in obtaining rights to some tribal lands. Environmentalists also began to exercise considerable political influence.

TASKS

19.1Answer the following questions to check how carefully you have read the text:

1. What is Australia? Where does Australia lie? What is its capital?
From what countries do the seas separate Australia?

2. What is said about Australian government? What political parties
usually dominate parliamentary elections? Is Australian press free
from direct government censorship? Does the constitution guaran­
tee freedom of press?

3. When did the first inhabitants appear in Australia? When did Euro­
peans begin the explorations of Australia? Who came first? What
did James Cook's historic voyage of 1770 result in? Who were trans­
ported to Australia from Britain?

4. What and when spurred economic development in Australia? What
led to the federation movement of the late 1800s? What had been
formed by 1859? How long did convict transportation continue?
What was proclaimed on January 1, 1901?

5. Why was April 25 declared a national holiday in 1920? What years
followed the end of World War II? What was established in Australia
at that time?

6. What brought Australia closer to the U.S.? What role has Australia assumed in Asian and Pacific affairs since World War II? What did Australia experience in the 1960s? What happened in 1975? When did the Labor government retain its majority in election?

19.2Transcribe the following words. Pay attention to the stress.

Canberra

LIST OF WORDS

Ex. 1. Look through the following list of words, make phrases and give their Russian equivalents. Use dictionary if necessary.

Ex.2. Which word in each group is the odd one out? You may need to consult a dictionary to distinguish the differences in meaning.

Ex. 3. Look through the list of words with the prefix non- having a negative meaning, find their Russian equivalents. Use dictionary if necessary.

nonacceptance,

nonadmission,

nonadvantageous,

nonagreement,

nonassemble,

nonbreakable,

nonbusiness,

noncertified,

noncompensating,

noncompetency,

noncomplying,

nonconfidential,

noncostitutional,

noncontradictory,

noncontrovercial,

noncriminal,

nondamageable,

nondependence,

nonequal,

noninjurious,

nonperformance,

nonpermissible,

nonprescriptive,

nonpunishable,

nontypical

Ex. 4. Complete the sentences using an appropriate form of the words in bold.

1. contract

a) It's one of the ______ terms that you work only for this company.

b) They are ______ bound to finish this work.

c) They might try to take legal action against you if you break the terms of the ______.

d) The ______ has told me the office will be ready by next month.

2. accept

a) I ______ full responsibility for the failure of the plan.

b) Clearly we need to come to an agreement that is ______ to both parties.

c) This idea rapidly gained ______.

d) I'm sorry but this proposal is totally ______ to us.

3. offer

a) They are asking one hundred and eight thousand for the place, so I put in an ______ of one hundred and seventy.

b) We are now ______ you the chance to buy the complete set of pans at half price.

c) It's an organization that ______ free legal advice to people on low incomes.

4. trust

a) Under the terms of the ______ he receives interest on the money, but he cannot get at the money itself.

b) You shouldn't be so ______ — people take unfair advantage of you.

c) He can't be ______ with much responsibility yet — he's still very inexperienced.

5. negotiate

a) The salary is ______ so how much do you think I should ask for?

b) He is one of the best ______ I've ever met.

c) Unfortunately, ______ with the union have broken down.

6.restrict

a) They have imposed ______ on the sales of certain electronic goods.

b) Such ______ trade practices are not in the public interest.

c) I'm afraid access to this information is ______.

Ex. 5. Match the words with their definitions.

1. Money which is paid to someone by a person or organization who has been responsible for causing them some injury or loss.

2. A legal decision; order or sentence given by a judge or a law court.

3. An official order given by a court of law, usually to stop someone from doing something.

4. A legal document that states and explains a formal agreement between people or groups, or the agreement itself.

5. To force someone to do something.

6. A piece of business, deal.

7. To take legal action against a person or organization, esp. by making a legal claim for money because of some harm that they have caused you.

8. A way of solving a problem or instructing someone to make a payment for harm or damage they have caused, using a decision made in a court of law.

9. An agreement to do or not to do something.

10. One of the parties to a contract.

Ex. 6. To show that you understand the words in Ex. 5, choose the best word to complete the following sentences.

1. He was so furious about the accusations in the letter that he threatened to ______.

2. She is seeking an ______ banning the newspaper from publishing the photographs.

3. The new circumstances ______ed a change in policy.

4. We have pursued and exhausted all possible ______ for this injustice.

5. I'll try to get back in time but I'm not making any ______.

6. Each ______ at the foreign exchange counter seems to take forever.

7. The police have been ordered to pay substantial ______ to the families of the two dead boys.

8. The law regarding contracts in general is to be found in ______ made by courts.

9. Under English law a ______ cannot enforce an agreement against another party if the agreement was to commit a crime.

10. Whatever happens don't sign any ______ before you have examined its conditions in detail.

Ex. 7. Supply an appropriate preposition.

1. There are many kinds ___ unwritten agreements ___ people which the law ___ most countries describes as contracts.

2. There are many everyday transactions which most people never think ___ as contracts.

3. The problem ___ unwritten contracts is that it may be very difficult to show evidence ___ the agreement you made.

4. Contracts made ___ the benefit of a third party may be enforceable ___ the third party.

5. The law regarding contracts ___ general is to be found ___ judgements made ______ courts.

6. The parties must agree to contract ______ certain terms — that is, they must know what they are agreeing ______.

7. ___ a contractual dispute, certain defences ___ the formation ___ a contract may permit a party to escape his/her obligations ___ the contract.

8. Legal systems have rules ___ interpreting contracts ___ which one or more contractors made a mistake.

9. A court will award damages only ___ loss closely connected ___ the defendant's breach.

10. A plaintiff may also ask the court to award an injunction ___ the defendant.

Ex. 8. Match the words and word expressions from A and B and give their Russian equivalents.

Read the texts. Make notes of its main points. Be ready to discuss them. Do some practice after reading to check your knowledge.

TEXT 1