THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 690.

A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. Clauses that are parts of a compound sentence are called coordinate, as they are joined by coordination.

In a compound sentence the clauses may be connected:

a) syndetically, i.e. by means of coordinating conjunctions (and, or, else, but etc) or conjunctive adverbs (otherwise, however, nevertheless, yet, still, therefore etc)

Yesterday I bought a penny fiddle

Andput it to my chin to play,

But I found its strings painted,

SoI threw my fiddle away.

b) asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or a conjunctive adverb.

Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall,

Humpty Dumpty had a great fall;

All the king's horses, and all the king's men.

Cannot put Humpty Dumpty together again.

We can distinguish the following types of coordination: copulative, disjunctive, adversative and causative-consecutive.

1. Copulative coordination (соединительная связь) implies that two events or ideas conveyed by coordinate clauses are merely joined in time and place. The copulative connectors are: the conjunctions and, nor, neither … nor, not only … but, as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover.

She was familiar with the petty social problems, andthey bored her.

I didn't recognize the girl, nor did I remember her name.

I not only remembered the girl's name, but I knew everything about her family.

We went along the street, then we turned to the left.

2. Disjunctive coordination (разделительная связь) denotes choice usually between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are: or, either … or, the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise.

You can join us at the station, orwe can wait for you at home.

Eitherlisten to me, orI shall stop reading to you.

Don't be late, otherwiseyou may not be let in.

3. Adversative coordination (противительная связь) joins clauses containing opposition, contradiction or contrast. Adversative connectors are: the conjunctions but, while, whereas, the conjunctive adverbs yet, still, nevertheless, only.

The story was amusing, but nobody laughed.

Peter is an engineer, while his brother is a musician.

There was an electric light, only Arthur had not switched it on.

4. Causative-consecutive coordination (причинно-следственная связь) joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other –– a consequence. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for.

The days became longer, for it was now springtime.

The conjunction for is intermediate between subordination and coordination. It is most often treated as a coordinating conjunction because the connection between the clause it introduces and the preceding clause is loose: a certain fact is stated and then another statement with a causal meaning is added.

The land seemed almost as dark as the water, for there was no moon.

Consecutive conjunctions are so, so that, therefore, hence, then.

The weather was fine, sothere were many people on the beach.

So that is intermediate between subordination and coordination. When used after a comma in writing or a pause in speaking its connection with the previous clause is looser and it performs the function of a coordinating conjunction.

John is unlikely to come soon, so that we'd better go home.

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses. Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence (subject, predicative, object, attribute, apposition, adverbial modifier).

Clauses in a complex sentence may be joined in two ways:

1. Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating conjunctions or connectives. There is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A conjunction serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses and expressing the relation between them. They usually stand at the beginning of a joined clause. A connective serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.

She became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul (conjunction).

All thathe had prepared was of no use any more (connective).

2. Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or connective.

The book you gave me is very interesting.

He said he would come in the evening.

A complex sentence may consist of more than two clauses. It may form a hierarchy of clauses.

I see thatyou have lost the key which I gave you.

Principal clause		Subordinate clause		Subordinate clause

The principal clause may have several subordinate clauses of equal rank.

I know thatyou are afraid of me and thatyou suspect me of something.

		Subordinate clause
Principal clause		and
		Subordinate clause

The principal clause may have several subordinate clauses with different functions.

All she saw was that she might go to prison for a robbery she had committed years ago.

Principal		Predicative
Clause		clause
All … was		… that she might go to prison for a robbery
Attributive		Attributive
Clause		clause
… she saw …		… she had committed

Subject clausesperform the function of a subject to a predicate of the principal clause. In this case the principal clause has no subject, the subordinate clause serving as such. Subject clauses answer the questions What? and Who?

What is interesting?

Complex sentences with a subject clause may be of two types:

1. With a subject clause preceding the predicate of the principal clause.

What I need is a piece of good advice.

Because I ask too many questions does not mean I am curious.

How the book will be sold depends on its plot and the author.

2. With a subject clause in the final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it.

It is strange that he has made a mistake.

It is uncertain when we shall start.

It is not known yet whether they will come today.

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:

a) by means of conjunctions that, if, whether.

It is understood that modern science allows such experiments.

b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when,

how, why.

What was done cannot be undone.

Whatever I can do for you is paying a debt.

c) asyndedically.

It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her.

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate –– a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate. Predicative clauses answer the questions What is the subject? What is the subject like?

What is the trouble?

Complex sentences with a predicative clause may be of two types:

1. The predicative clause may follow the principal clause in which the subject is a notional word, although it usually has a very general meaning.

The problem is not who will go, but who will say.

The question is whether they are able to help us.

2. The predicative clause may follow the principal clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either directly or by means of comparison.

It appears he hasn't been here.

It sounded as if it were here.

This type of sentences shouldn't be confused with complex sentences with a subject clause, which also begins with it. In sentences with a subject clause the predicate of the principal clause is complete, whereas in the case of a predicative clause it consists only of the link verb. Compare:

It seems that there is no care (a predicative clause).

It seems evident that there is no care (a subject clause).

Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if.

Our attitude is that facts are facts.

I felt as if death had laid a hand on me.

b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, where, when, how, why.

The weather is not what it was yesterday.

The question was how was the matter to be kept quiet.

c) asyndetically.

Another thing was they made him stay for one more week.

In the case when a complex sentence consists of a subject clause and a predicative clause the principal clause is represented only by the link verb.

What he says	is	that he goes away.
a subject clause		a predicative clause

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal clause. They answer the questions What? About what? For what? etc.

He told them	what he had seen there
Whatdid he tell?

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite from of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word denoting state.

I left her to dowhatever she liked.

He has just gone away sayingthat he will return in an hour.

He was gladthat no one was at home.

Complex sentences with an object clause may be of two types:

1. A direct object clause, which follows directly the word it refers to. A particular case of this type of object clauses is indirect speech following verbs of saying.

I know when I am wasting time.

He asked me if I wanted to stay.

An object clause may refer to formal it followed by the objective predicative.

He made it clear that his intentions were honest

I think it necessary that you should go there at once.

I like it when people are nice to me.

2. A prepositional object clause, when an object clause is introduced by the prepositions after, about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as, to, etc.

I am not certain of what he did.

I want to be paid for what I do.

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following way:

a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

Time will show whether I am right or wrong.

b) by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, where, when,

how, why.

I'll do just what I say.

He wondered why he should look back.

I don't know where I have lost it.

c) asyndetically.

I know he has returned.

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun or a pronoun in the principal clause. This pronoun or noun is called the antecedent of the clause. Usually the attributive clause immediately follows its antecedent, they answer the questions What? Which?

What man?
The man	who was here yesterday	is a painter.

An attributive clause may be introduced by connectives: relative pronouns (who, whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or relative adverbs (when, where). The choice of relative word depends on the meaning of the antecedent.

a) If the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative word who, whom, whose or that is used.

A man whose voice seemed familiar to me gave commands.

b) If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion the relative word which, whose or that is used.

He went to the next house which stood in a small garden.

c) If the antecedent is expressed by all denoting a living being the pronoun who or that is used; if it denotes a thing or notion the pronoun that is generally used.

All that remained was to thank them and say “good-bye”.

d) If the antecedent is expressed by everything, something, anything or nothing the relative pronoun that is generally used or the clause is joined asyndetically.

There was nothing in his face that spoke of his character.

Everything you may want is in the wardrobe.

e) If the antecedent is modified by the adjective only, the pronoun any or by an adjective in the superlative degree, the attributive clause is introduced by the pronoun that or asyndetically.

There is the only chance (that) we have.

f) Attributive clauses joined by the relative adverbs when, where refer to antecedents denoting space or time.

It is the hour when we asleep.

g) The relative adverb why refers to antecedents denoting cause or reason.

They see no reason why they should do it.

Depending on the degree of connection attributive clauses fall into two types: attributive restrictive clauses and attributive descriptive clauses.

1. Attributive restrictive clauses are very closely connected with the antecedent and cannot be removed from the sentence because the information contained in the attributive clause determines or particularizes the person, thing, idea expressed by the antecedent. Therefore the meaning of the principal clause is not complete or even changed without the subordinate clause.

A library is a place where they keep books.

This is the kind of job I'd like.

I used to learn by heart the things they had written.

2. Attributive descriptive clauses are characterized by a looser connection with the principal clause. Usually it contains additional information about the antecedent and may be left out without any serious change in the meaning of the principal clause. They are joined by the same connectives as restrictive clauses, although the relative pronoun that and asyndetic connection are not possible.

I returned to London, where I remained for a week.

I consulted my father who promised to help me.

All that could be done had been done.

An attributive descriptive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence, series of sentences or even a whole story is called continuative attributive clause.

He was not indoors, which was a relief to her.

She lived in two rooms over a teashop, which was convenient, since she could send down for cakes if she had visitors.

Attributive appositive clauses. Unlike an apposition in a simple sentence, which usually gives another name to the person or thing disignated by the antecedent, an appositive clause discloses the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the connectives how and why. They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically, e.g.

He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

The question whether it was he or was hotly discussed.

The matter how and why those people got the information still

worried him.

Adverbial clausesperform the function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. They answer the questions of adverbial modifiers.

I saw him	when I was at the club
Whendid you see him?

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes adverbial clauses of condition. According to their meaning we distinguish adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner and comparison.

Adverbial clauses of time show the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, since, after, before, now, that.

My sister was born when I was eight years old.

I stopped as soon as I saw Susan.

Whenever there was a pause, he gently asked again.

After the agreement had been signed, the delegation left Moscow.

We have not had any news from him since he left Moscow.

The conjunctions till and until introduce clause which fix the end of the action in the principal clause if the latter contains no negation.

She resolved to wait till Clym came to look for her.

If the time reference in the subordinate clause with till or until is to a commencement point, the main clause is always negative.

He did not say a word till he was asked.

They did not marry until she was forty.

The boy did not start to read until he went to school.

The conjunction since may introduce a clause which indicates the beginning of a period of time continuing until now or until some time in the past. In the first case the

Present Perfect is used in the principal clause, in the second –– the Past Perfect. In the temporal clause the Past Indefinite is used in both cases.

I have only seen him once since I left school.

Adverbial clauses in sentences of the following type are also clauses of time.

Scarcelyhad his hands touched her head, when she sighed deeply.

Hardlyhad they entered the house, when a violent thunderstorm broke out.

No soonerhad I wiped one drop from my cheek, than another followed.

The conjunctions when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner in the principal clause.

Adverbial clauses of placeshow the place or the direction of the action in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions where and whenever.

I like to spend my leave where I can shoot.

He went where the doctor sent him.

Whenever he went, he was welcome.

Adverbial clauses of cause (reason)show the cause or motivation of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on the ground that, for the reason that, in view of the fact that, in so far as, etc.

I went away because there was no one there.

He walked quickly for he was in a great hurry.

Since you have finished your work, you may go home.

Now that he is here, he can help you.

Each of the conjunctions expresses a certain shade of causative meaning, and so they are not always interchangeable. Because usually introduces clauses with the meaning of real cause. This can be illustrated by the ability of because-clauses (but not others) to be included in questions. Thus it is correct to say:

Did you ask him because he was famous?

But it is wrong to say:

Did you ask him since he was famous?

Unlike because the conjunctions since and as introduce clauses with an explanatory meaning or that of motivation.

Since you are here, we may begin our talk.

The other reason why causal conjunctions are not always interchangeable with because, is that some of them are polyfunctional: as and since may be conjunctions of time, as well as of cause.

We had to carry the luggage ourselves as there were no porters (causal relation).

His mood changed as they marched down to the clocks (temporal relation).

Adverbial clauses of purpose generally contain a planned action, which is to be achieved by the action expressed by the predicate or any verbal part in the principal clause. The predicate in the subordinate clause is in the Subjunctive mood. Adverbial clauses of purpose are introduced by conjunctions that, so that, lest, so as, so, in order that, for fear that.

The teacher speaks slowly so that his pupils may understand him.

I gave him the textbook in order he might learn his lesson.

The conjunctions lest and for fear that introduce clauses stating what is to be prevented, as both the conjunctions have a negative meaning. Lest is extremely formal and after it the Subjunctive mood usually with should is used.

We wrapped the instruments in oilcloth lest they should be damaged by sea water.

Take an electric torch for fear you get off the path.

Adverbial clauses of condition state the condition (either real or unreal) which is necessary for the realization of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions it, unless, in case, suppose, on condition that, provided, etc.

If I see him tomorrow, I shall ask him about it.

He won't go there unless he is invited.

We can deliver the machine in December provided (that) we receive your order within the next ten days.

Conditional clauses may be joined to the principal clause asyndetically by means of link-inversion. Inversion is possible only if the predicate is in the Subjunctive mood.

Had she been an English woman, she would have never behaved like that.

Depending on the relation between the subordinate and the principal clauses and on the use of tense and mood forms, conditional clauses may be subdivided into three types:

I. Clauses of real condition, when the actions or events in both the clauses refer to the past or present and these actions or events are regarded as real facts. If the actions or events refer to the future, they are regarded as real possible facts.

If the weather is fine tomorrow, we shall go to the country.

If he is here, he is probably working in the library.

If he called on them yesterday, they gave him your letter.

II. Clauses of possible condition. These clauses denote hypothetical situations or circumstances which may be or may not be realized in the present or future. Accordingly the Subjunctive mood forms are used both in the subordinate and the principal clause to denote actions or states.

If I saw my friend tomorrow, I should ask him about it.

You wouldn't be talking that way unless you were hurt.

In case the state of the patient become worse, he would be taken to hospital.

Should he ask for reference, tell him to apply to me.

III. Clauses of unreal condition imply non-fulfilment of the condition, as the actions or events described in the conditional clause refer to the past and the time of their realization is over.

If the book had been published, they could have bought a copy in the shops.

He wouldn't have caught cold if he had put on warm coat.

She would have been playing her part well unless she had been stiff with fright.

A complex sentence with a conditional clause may be built on clauses of type II and III, this forming a mixed type of conditional relationship.

If you had worked harder last year, you would know English well now.

If he knew English well, he would have translated the article without difficulty yesterday.

Adverbial clauses of concession denote the presence of some obstacle which nevertheless does not hinder the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the following conjunctions and connectives: though, although, no matter how, however, whatever, whichever, even if, even though, even when, for all that, despite that, in spite of the fact etc.

Though it was only nine o'clock, there were few people in the streets.

He went out in spite of the fact that he had a bad cold.

The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of concession in which the predicative stands first.

Troubled ashe was, he never exposed his difficulties to her.

Dark as it was getting, I could still see these changes.

Adverbial clauses of result denote some consequence or result of the action expressed in the principal clause. Very often adverbial clauses of result have an additional meaning of degree. Adverbial clauses of pure result are introduced by the conjunction so that.

He went to the lecture early so that he got a good seat.

She sat behind me so that (so) I could not see the expression on her face.

Adverbial clauses of result with an additional meaning of degree are introduced by the conjunction that; in this case we find the adverbs so or pronoun such in the principal clause.

He is so weak physically that he can hardly move.

I was in suchastonishmentthat I could hardly speak.

Adverbial clauses of manner characterize in a general way the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions as, as it, as though, the way. In adverbial clauses of manner the idea of comparison is often implied.

She cooks the turkey exactly as my mother did.

You answered as if you did not know the rule.

I'm sorry I talked the way I did at lunch.

There are different types of adverbial clauses of manner.

I. Clauses of manner of the first type modify the predicate of the principal clause by attributing some quality to it.

He could do it as no one else could have done.

You ought to write as he does.

II. Clauses of manner of the second type refer to attributes or predicatives characterizing a state or quality of a person.

Astonished, as one could be in such circumstances, he didn't give a sign of it.

He was puzzled by the situation, as one could easily be in his place.

III. Clauses of manner of the third type refer to an adverbial modifier giving additional information or explanation concerning it.

He said it with contempt, as a serious man should treat such views.

Adverbial clauses of comparison denote an action with which the action of the principal clause is compared. They are introduced by the conjunctions than, as… as, not so… as, as it, as though, like.

He was weak and pale as if he had not slept for many nights.

They don't have long intervals like they do at other theatres.

We were going up the road asfast as we could.

The Complex Sentences with mutually subordinated clauses.

In complex sentences of this type it is impossible to differentiate which of the clauses is the principal one and which is subordinate. Thus we have here mutual subordination. These sentences express a proportional relationship –– proportionality or equivalence; the more intensive is the action or quality described in one clause, the more intensive becomes the other, described in the following clause. Clauses of proportionate agreement are joined by the conjunction as, adverbs so… so in both clauses or particles the… the, followed by the comparative degree of adverbs or adjectives.

The morehe reflected on the idea, the morehe liked it.

As time went on, so their hopes began to wane.

So fast asdepression sets in upon me, so surely did the dog's little ears drop down and his head hang lower.

Parenthetical Clausesinterrupt another sentences with which they are either not connected syntactically or are only loosely connected with separate parts of the sentences. Parenthetical clauses are often called comment clauses, because they do not simply add to the information given in the sentence but comment on its truth, the manner of saying it, or express the attitude of the speaker toward it.

He waited (which was his normal occupation) and thought of the cost of living.

She cooked –– and she was a good cook –– and marketed and chatted with the delivery boys.

Parenthetical clauses may occur in the front or end position as well.

Her singing is something quite exceptional, I think.

As you put it, it sounds convincing.

Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like different communicative types of sentences –– statements, questions, imperative or exclamatory sentences or clauses.

It was –– why hadn't he noticed it before? –– beginning to be an effort for her to hold her back straight.

I felt –– such curious shapes egoism takes! –– that they had come because of me.