Notes to the Text

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 365.

Part 1

Historical Overview of Diplomacy

The concept of diplomacy goes farther back than does recorded history and ideas relating to this phenomenon have arisen in many primitive societies. For example, the idea of diplomatic immunity is known among the Australian aborigines. A study of the diplomacy of primitive peoples encompassing societies in Australia, Asia, Africa and the Americas showed familiarity with ideas such as messengers and envoys to maintain intertribal relations. Some had beliefs that messengers are in possession of protecting taboo that should not be violated. Others received envoys and their messages according to a given ceremonial. Messengers were often selected not from among expendable members of society, but from the leading men or women of the tribe.

Due to a lack of a preserved written record, very little is known about diplomacy in ancient history. While few in number, there are references to diplomatic concepts across many societies, such as the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese and the Hindus.

Documents dating back to ancient Egypt describe the exchange of envoys between the Egyptian pharaohs and neighboring monarchs. In addition to these descriptions, a treaty dating to 1278 BC between the pharaoh Ramses II and Hatursi II, the king of the Hittities, was found.

Thanks to a cuneiform library founded by Sargon II in the 700's BC, there is a plentiful record of envoys between Assyria, Babylon and Elam during the reign of Assurbanipal ofAssyria,which lasted until 626 BC.

The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date from the 1^st millennium BC. By the 8^th century BC, the Chinese had leagues, missions and organized system of polite discourse between their many “warring states”, including resident envoys who served as hostages to the good behavior of those who sent them. The sophisticated essence of ancient Chinese diplomatic system is best captured by the advice of Zhuangzi to envoys and messengers (diplomats) at the beginning of the 3^rd century BC. He advised them that if relations between states are close, they may establish mutual trust through daily interaction; but if relations are distant, mutual confidence can only be established by exchanges of messages. Messages must be conveyed by messengers (diplomats). Their contents may be either pleasing to both sides or likely to engenderanger between them. Faithfully conveying such messages is the most difficult task under the heavens, for if the words are such as evokea positive response on both sides, there will be the temptation to exaggerate them with flattery and, if they are unpleasant, there will be a tendency to make them even more biting. In either case, the truth will be lost. If truth is lost, mutual trust will also be lost and the messenger himself may be imperiled. I say to you that it is a wise rule: “always to speak the truth and never to embellish it. In this way, you will avoid much harm to yourselves.”

This tradition of equal diplomatic dealings between contending states within China was ended by the country's unification under Qin emperor in 221 BC and the consolidation of unity under the Han dynasty in 206 BC. Under the Han and succeeding dynasties, China emerged as the largest, most populous, technologically advanced and best governed society in the world. Being so powerful and self-esteemed Chinese leaders and diplomats waited at home for foreigners to pay their respects rather than venturing abroad themselves. This “tributary system” lasted until European colonialism overwhelmed it and introduced to Asia European concepts sovereignty, suzerainty, spheres of influence, and other diplomatic norms, traditions and practices.

Ancient India was home to an equally sophisticated but very different diplomatic tradition. This tradition was described in the “Artha-shastra” written in Sansrit language by Kautilya. It should be emphasized that Kautilya was the principal adviser to Chandra Gupta Mauraya, the founder of the Mauray dynasty who ruled in the 3^rd century BC. “Artha-shastra” posited four expedients of statecraft (conciliation, seduction, subversion and coercion) and six forms of state policy (peace, war, nonalignment, alliances, shows of force and double-dealing). To execute policies derived from these strategic points, ancient India fielded three categories of diplomats: plenipotentiaries, envoys entrusted with a single issue or mission, and royal messengers. Besides, there were consular agents who were charged with managing commercial relations and transactions. In addition two kinds of spies were charged with the collection of intelligence, subversion and other forms of covert action.

Detailed rules regulated diplomatic immunities and privileges, the inauguration and termination of diplomatic missions, and the selection and duties of envoys. Thus, Kautilya describes the “duties of an envoy” as sending information to his king, ensuring maintenance of the terms of a treaty, upholding his king's honor, acquiring allies, instigating dissention among the friends of his enemy, conveying secret agents and troops (into enemy territory), suborningthe kinsmen of the enemy to his own king's side etc. He admits that no envoys should ever be harmed, and even if they deliver an “unpleasant” message, they should not be detained.

Some elements of Hindu's ancient diplomacy have been remained through centuries and are exercised in modern diplomatic system of India and other states.

the Egyptians, the Assyrians, the Babylonians, the Hebrews, the Chinese, the Hindus – египтяне, ассирийцы, вавилоняне, древние иудеи, китайцы, индусы;

- the pharaoh Ramses II and Hatursi II, the king of the Hittities – египетский фараон Рамзес II и король хеттов Хатурси II;

- a cuneiform library founded by Sargon II in the 700's BC – клинописная библиотека, основанная ассирийским царем Шаррум – кен («царь Истинный»);

- Elam – Элам («возвышенная страна») - семитское название древнего государства, расположенного на востоке Вавилонии и Ассирии и соответствовавшее позднейшей Персии с Мидией;

- The reign of Assurbanipal of Assyria, which lasted until 626 BC – период правления (царствования) царя Ассирии Аширбанипала, который длился до 676 года до Рождества Христова;

Zhuangzi – Чжуан – цзы – китайский философ, живший в 4 в. до н. э. в эпоху «Сражающихся царств» и входивший в число ученых «Ста школ»;

Qin emperor – император Цинь Ши Хуанди, основатель первого централизованного государства в Китае;

Under the Han and succeeding dynasties – во время правления Хань и последующих династий;

“ tributary system” – система зависимости

the “Artha-shastra” written in Sansrit language by Kautilya, the principal adviser of Chandra Gupta Mauraya – «Артхашастра» («Наука о пользе» на санскрите), сводный трактат по науке управления и политике, приписываемый Каутилье – министру основателя династии мауриев Чандрагупта I

expendable members – обычные члены общества

3. Decide if the following statements are true or false:

a. Some attributes of diplomatic practice may be found in primitive societies of Australia, Asia, Africa, etc.

b. Ancient peoples believed that messengers and envoys shouldn't be violated.

c. Messengers were selected from among ordinary members of society.

d. In 1278 BC there was found a treaty between the pharaoh Ramses II and the King of Hebrews.

e. The first records of Chinese and Indian diplomacy date back to the 2d millennium BC.

f. In China envoys served as hostages to the good behavior of those who sent them.

g. The Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi advised that mutual trust between the states may be established only through messages.