Major components of the noun-head phrase 6 page

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 439.

• In conversation, time and place are almost equally the most common.

• In fiction, place, process, and time are all frequent, following that order.

• In news, time dominates, followed by place, then process.

• In academic prose, only process stands out.

Within the category of process adverbials, manner is by far the most common subcategory in all four registers. Agentive adverbials are moderately common only in news and academic prose. The means and instrument subcategories are rare in all four registers.

2. Linking adverbials. The primary function of linking adverbials is to state the speaker/writer's perception of the relationship between two units of discourse. Because they explicitly signal the connections between passages of text, linking adverbials are important devices for creating textual cohesion, alongside coordinators and subordinators.

Semantic categories of linking adverbials A variety of different relationships can be marked by linking adverbials. We distinguish six general semantic categories, described below.

Enumeration and addition. Linking adverbials can be used for the enumerationof pieces of information in an order chosen by the speaker/writer and for the additionof items of discourse to one another. Linking adverbials used for enumeration include ordinal numbers such as first and second, and adverbs such as finally and lastly, as well as other structures such as prepositional phrases: This new structure must accomplish two special purposes. First,as a part of overcoming the division of Europe there must be an opportunity to overcome through peace and freedom the division of Berlin and of Germany. Second,the architecture should reflect that American's security remains linked to Europe. (news) We are already acquainted with six properties which may be used to describe the thermodynamic state of a system: pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy <.. .> Lastly,entropy S was shown to be a property as a consequence of the First Law. (acad) He couldn't bring himself to say what he thought. For one thing,she seldom stopped to listen. For another,he doubted that he could make himself clear. (fict) In some cases the order of enumeration follows real-life logical or time sequence orders but this need not be so. For example, in the last sample above, the pieces of information could have been enumerated in the opposite order. Other enumerating adverbials include: firstly, secondly, thirdly (etc.), in the first/second place, first of all, for one thing, for another thing, to begin with etc. In some cases, linking adverbials simply mark the next unit of being added to the previous one: Mr. Justice Hirst said that the criteria in determining whether an oversee company had established a place of business in Great Britain were summarised in Palmer's Company Law, 24th edn (1987) page 1658. Further, a visible sign or physical indication was not essential. (news)

It should be noted that in the first example the addition is directly that of the writer. While in the second example it is attributed to Mr. Justice Hirst. Furthermore, further in the second example links not to the entire preceding sentence, but just to the reported speech clause following said. Other additive linking adverbials include also, by the same token, furthermore, likewise, and moreover.

Summation.Adverbials marking summation show that a unit of discourse is intended conclude or sum up the information in the preceding discourse: In sum, then, to account for a synchronic assimilation from [k] to [t] under this view, the processes of tier promotion and complex segment simplification must apply along with the spreading of the assimilation feature. (acad) To conclude, we may place the three notions of saliency in an ordered relation as follows…(acad) Other summative adverbials include all in all, in conclusion, overall, to and to summarize.

Apposition. Adverbials of apposition show that the second unit of text is to be treated as equivalent to or included in the preceding unit. An appositive linking adverbial can be used to show that the second unit be taken as a restatement of the first, reformulating the information it expresses some way or stating it in more explicit terms: I looked into my Being, all that lovely light and rotting nerve, and proceeded to listen. Which is to say, I looked out deep into that shimmer of past death and new madness. The current edition <.. .> shows that road users cover their track costs by a factor of 2.4 to 1. In other words, users of all types pay almost two and a half times as much in taxes as is spent on all road costs. (news) All the items would have low omission rates among the bottom 20 per cent band of attainers nationally; that is,they would not deter this group of pupils, who would be willing to have a go at them. (acad) In many cases, the second unit of text is an example. It is therefore presented as information that is in some sense included in, rather than exactly equivalent to, the previous text (marked in []): She understood [the parameters of the picnics all too well]. E.g. they could not go to the beach because of the sand. (fict) If a population becomes highly entrained, [its diversity is greatly reduced]. For example,the age structure could become very narrow. (acad) It's also an opportunity to say that [the US supermarket papers are streets ahead when it comes to headline writing].

Result/Inference. Linking adverbials in the result/inferencecategory show that the second unit of discourse states the result or consequence–either logical or practical–of the preceding discourse:This year's commitment we will not reach this year. Therefore,we'll be into deficit! (conv) I once acquired a set of recordings of a Bach piano concerto. I was very fond of it, but my mother was forever criticizing and chastising my poor taste <...>. Consequently,I now hardly listen to Each. (fict) As the spatial file contains all the geometric relationships necessary to specify the body, this can be used to generate any pictorial view. It is thusnot necessary to produce an engineering drawing specifically for the purpose of showing everyone what it looks like. (acad) Other typical resultive linking adverbials are as a result, hence, in consequence, and thus. In conversation this category is also commonly realized by so. In some cases, so clearly marks a resultive relationship: 1. He's being a zombie, so he's coming downstairs with two sleeping bags over the top of his head and knocking everything over. (conv) 2. Oh well you've seen it anyway, so I won't put it on. (conv)

In both of these examples, so introduces the result of the event which has already been stated in the first clause. So clearly has the same meaning as other resultive adverbials, and could, for example, be replaced with therefore. However, so does not always have such a clear role. At times, it appears to be used to show the result of something understood from the context that is not available to analysts of a written transcription. In the following example, so could relate to some accompanying action that is not put into words (presenting a finished product, putting away tools, closing a book, etc.) which suggests work is finished: Okay so that's that. (conv) The result/inference category also includes inferential linking adverbials, which mark one idea as an inferred result of another:He works late. How am I supposed to get there then? (conv) In this example, then marks the connection between the idea of the first clause (his working late) and the speaker's problem of getting to another location. However, this connection is not as overtly stated as with many resultive adverbials (e.g. He works late; therefore, he cannot drive me there.)

Contrast/concession. The category of contrast/concessionis broader than many other categories of linking adverbials, containing items that in some way mark incompatibility between information in different discourse units, or that signal concessive relationships. Some adverbials clearly mark contrasts, alternatives, or differences: Administration officials, notably the White House Chief of Staff and Deputy Treasury Secretary, were irked by his independence. On the other hand,Taylor reportedly is well-regarded by Treasury officials for his low-key, out-of-the-limelight style. (news) Many statutory water companies are already saddled with high borrowings. In contrast,the water authorities are going into the private sector flush with cash. (news)

Other adverbials more clearly mark a concessive relationship, showing that the subsequent discourse expresses some reservation about the idea in the preceding clause: A: Wish I could afford a new car, I would love a nice new car! We won't be able to afford one for a couple years yet. B: You could afford a Mini though.(conv) Now that the lawyers have taken over, science will never be able to reach a verdict, and anywayit no longer matters. (news) In some cases, elements of contrast and concession are combined in uses of linking adverbials: Until recently hypobiosis was not considered to be a feature of this genus. However, there is now ample evidence in temperate areas that hypobiosis plays an important part in the epidemiology, the seasonal occurrence being similar to that of Ostertagia spp. (acad) Other examples of contrast/concession linking adverbials can be grouped according to their primary meaning: focus on contrast - conversely, instead, on the contrary, in contrast, by comparison; focus on concession - anyhow, besides, nevertheless, still, in any case, at any rate, in spite of that, after all.

Linking adverbials of transition mark the insertion of an item that does not follow directly from the previous discourse. The new information is not incompatible with what it is linked to but rather it is signalled as only loosely connected, or unconnected. That is, these adverbials mark the transitionto another, usually tangential, topic. Certain occurrences of now and meanwhile are transition linking adverbials, as are the following: "It reminds one of some story in Punch. Did you know there was a place called Punch in Kashmir by the by?" (fict) It seems clear that there is nothing for it hut to go hack and attack the first difficulties again. Incidentally,one way to motivate yourself if things do get sticky is to imagine that you have to explain the subject to the class the next day. (acad)

Linking adverbials can have functions that overlap with those of circumstance and stance adverbials. For example, consider the following use of thus: When the democratically-elected Colombian senate rejected Mr. Roosevelt's proposal because the money offered was too low, he sponsored the invasion instead. ThusPanama gained its independence from Colombia and the Canal Zone was horn. (news) In this passage, thus marks the second sentence as containing the result of the first. However, it can also be interpreted as a circumstance adverbial, equivalent to in this way. Some occurrences of linking adverbials also blend functions of stance adverbials. Certain summative linking adverbials, in particular, not only mark summation, but also include the sense of a style stance adverbial, because the summative statement is a brief analysis of a situation. In the following passage, in sum seems closely related to the stance adverbial in brief: Inevitably it must be answered in such a way as to produce either a kind of dualism or atrue monism. In the former case, mental indispensability cannot be achieved by what is on hand. In the latter case, the upshot is Local Idealism. Identity Theories, in sum, face a defeating dilemma. (acad)

3. Stance adverbials have the primary function of commenting on the content or style of a clause or a particular part of a clause. Stance adverbials are much less common than circumstance adverbials. In fact, most sentences in English do not contain stance adverbials. Rather, they are statements made without overt stance markers:They went to some park in Ann Arbor and got an ice cream and sat around, walked around Ann Arbor and then went back to the car and got their stuff. (conv)The Queen of England will race a horse in the United States for the first time in 35 years at Arlington International Racecourse. (news)

Of course, even circumstance adverbials can imply some comment on the form or style of a proposition. For example, the following circumstance adverbials can be interpreted as showing the speaker/writer's assessment of the situation: 1. The disease pattern has changed radically.(acad) 2. I was only asking. (conv) In 1, the use of radically shows the writer's assessment of the change–that whatever amount it is exactly, it is radical. In 2, only conveys the speaker's attitude that asking should not be taken as a very serious or intrusive action. However, with stance adverbials, the author/speaker's attitude or comment on the content is much more overt: 3. Ruth was definitelyat Goosehill School. (conv) 4. It was funny, though, how Christmas undeniablybrought out the gentler, kinder aspects of human nature. (fict) 5.Regrettably, last night's audience was a meagre one, but what they got was impressive. (news) In these examples, statements of certainly (definitely, undeniably) and the attitude of regret (regrettably) are overtly stated. Furthermore, stance adverbials are frequently distinguishable by their greater potential mobility and prosodic separation from the rest of a clause. It should also be noted that stance can be conveyed with constructions other than adverbials. These other stance devices include nouns (e.g. the fact that...), modal auxiliaries and main verbs (it maybe, it seems that...), and adjectives (e.g. it is likely that ...). In conversation paralinguistic features such as prosody and loudness can also function as markers of stance. Stance adverbials fall into three major semantic categories: epistemic, attitude, and style. Epistemic stance adverbials and attitude stance adverbials both comment on the content of a proposition. Epistemic markers express the speaker's judgment about the certainty, reliability, and limitations of the proposition; they can also comment on the source of the information. Attitude stance adverbials convey the speaker's attitude or value judgment about the proposition's content. Style adverbials, in contrast, describe the manner of speaking.

Epistemic adverbials are the most diverse category of stance adverbials. Typicall they convey one of the following six major areas of meaning. Doubt and certainty adverbials show the speaker's certainty or doubt about the proposition in the clause. They include both absolute judgments of certainty and indication of belief in various levels of probability. Expressing certainty:No doubt his bifocals added to this impression, as did his nonchalant gait and slouchy posture. (fict) That sort of gossip certainly should be condemned. (news) During the action the person will undoubtedly have certain feelings towards it and gain satisfaction from achievement. (acad) Expressing doubt: In spite of that it was probably more comfortable than the home they'd left anyway. (conv) And perhaps the soul thrived on its sufferings. (fict) Maybe it is true, maybe it isn't. (news) Others epistemic stance adverbials of certainty or doubt include: arguably, decidedly, definitely, incontestably, incontrovertibly, most likely, very likely, quite likely, of course, I guess, I think.

Actuality and reality adverbials comment on the status of the proposition as real-life fact: In fact I'm taller than the doors. (conv) Everybody remembers where they were when JFK was shot and now a new round of "Who ReallyKilled the President" books are coming out. (news) Not all the evidence by any means concurs with the view that women were actuallysuperior to men in some respects. (acad) In actual fact, for a fact, and truly are other typical stance adverbials of reality or actuality.

Source of knowledge adverbials show the source of the information reported in the associated proposition. These adverbials include adverbs such as evidently, apparently, reportedly, and reputedly which allude to evidence supporting the proposition: Evidently, the stock market believes that matters will not rest there anв Pearl's share price raced up 87p to 639p. (news) Today it was the dish towel she'd brought with her. Apparently,Rosie had interrupted her in the middle of some chore. (fict) These adverbials may also identify a specific source: Egypt's nuclear power industry is still in the design phase, but according to Mr. Kandil, nuclear power was the only clean energy alternative for Egypt. (news)

Limitation. Epistemic adverbials can mark the limitation of the proposition: In most cases he would have been quite right. (fict) Its footage is mainlylicensed world-wide to film makers for inclusion in features and documentaries. (news) Typically there is a pair of ganglia in each segment of the body. (acad) Other stance adverbials commonly used to mark limitation include: generally, largely, in general and in most cases. In comparison with these stance adverbials, circumstance adverbials of respect limit the application of a proposition in somewhat different way. Viewpoint or perspective. Epistemic adverbials can mark the viewpoint or perspective from which the proposition is true: In our view it would be a backward step. (news) From our perspective, movement success is paradoxical. (acad) Such stance adverbials often include a possessive pronoun, as in examples and the expression in my opinion.Imprecision. A number of epistemic adverbials are used to show that the propolis: conveyed is somehow imprecise: Men were likeliterally throwing themselves at me. (conv) It kept sortof pouring out of his pocket, my brother said. (FICT) Indeed, the only real drawback, if you can call it that,is that peoplecontinually coming up and congratulating us on our victory over England (news) As in the examples above, the adverbials showing imprecision can be for particular element of the clause - e.g. marking the word drawback as able. Other expressions typically used as stance adverbials of imprecision about, kind of, roughly, and so to speak. All of these markers of imprecision can be considered the classification that also includes non-adverbial items, and which is not easily distinguishable from degree. Attitude adverbials. Attitude adverbials tell of the writer's or speaker's attitude toward the typically conveying an evaluation, value judgment, or assessment of expectations: Unfortunately I have too many of them but someday you'll be old too.(conv ) Fortunately,during my first few months here, I kept a journal. (fict) Born to salty, honest East End folk - this was hinted at, the script sensibly avoiding the risk of fleshing them out – he had risen in the city. (news ) Later cretaceous chalks (still contemporaneous with the European development) are found in Arkansas, Mississippi and Alabama. And most surprising of all,much farther away still in western Australia, we have the gingin chalk of late cretaceous age. (acad ) Often these adverbials can be restated as to-clauses or that-clauses with adjective describing attitude, e.g. It is fortunate/unfortunate that..., I think it sensibly that...,It is surprising that.. A wide variety of attitudes, judgments, expectations can be conveyed by items are as semantically diverse as the following: Accordance with expectation - as might be expected, inevitably, as you might guess, to my surprise, astonishingly. Evaluation - conveniently, wisely, sensibly, unfortunately, quite rightly, even worse, disturbingly.Judgment of importance - even more importantly. In addition, the adverb hopefully is sometimes used as an attitude stance adverbial: Hopefully it's self-explanatory. (conv).Hopefullytheir detective will be equally lost as to where to find him. (fict Jose Ramon, a new chef who arrived at the Guernica two months ago, will hopefullymaintain these high standards. (news) Hopefullythis problem will be solved when the group is thoroughly revised. (acad) In these examples, the meaning might be glossed as I am hopeful that. Although writing manuals often warn against this use of hopefully, it occurs in the more formal registers of news and academic prose, as well as in conversation and fiction.

Style adverbials. Stance adverbials focused on style, comment on the manner of conveying the message (e.g. frankly, honestly, truthfully): Well honestlyI, I don't know. (conv) Quite frankly,he looked terrible. (fict) More simply put,a feedback system has its inputs affected by its outputs. (acad) Often these stance adverbials can be glossed as: I am being X when I say...; e.g. I am being honest when I say I don't know. In this way, style adverbials are more focused on the speaker than are epistemic and attitude adverbials, although all three convey a speaker's or writer's stance. Other typical style adverbials include: confidentially, figuratively speaking, in a word, in short, putting it bluntly, strictly, technically speaking, truthfully.Finite clauses are also occasionally used as style adverbials, often with the subordinator if: Is it a fact that you have refused to take any fee for the work you are doing, if you don't mind my asking?(fict) I have to say that in terms of violent crime generally the amount of it in the United Kingdom is small compared with that in other countries and,if I may say so, here in Washington. (news) Such clauses are not as easily glossed, but they clearly show that the speakers view themselves as speaking bluntly or in a potentially offensive way. Syntactic realizations of stance adverbials. Every type of adverbial structure reviewed in is possible for the realization of stance adverbials. Single word adverb: They had evidentlybeen too scared of their autocratic director to record such an unlikely phenomenon. (acad) Adverb phrase: But quite franklyI can't see myself ever getting - given the same sort of circumstances. (conv) Prepositional phrase: His bedside manner was, in a word,menacing. (news) Noun phrase: Some will no doubtaccuse Jarman of shock tactics along Warhol lines. (news) Finite clause: Well, then, I have come here to heal myself, if you like to put it thatway. (fict) Non-finite clause: Based on studies of crop plants and native species grown under controlled conditions, root growth often responds at least as much, and perhaps more, to elevated carbon dioxide than does shoot growth. (acad)

Multi-word stance adverbials are often more fixed and conventionalized than circumstance adverbials. Hence, fixed phrases such as of course and sort of can be considered single adverbs, since they function as a unit and never vary in form. In contrast, the expression in fact shows variability (e.g. in actual fact, in true fact, in any fact) and is therefore considered a prepositional phrase. Stance adverbials can also be realized as adjectival phrases, although this structure is very rare: Even more important, the prospect of a single currency would eliminate an enormous source of uncertainty for business. (news) Still more important, children who grew up in elite homes enjoyed advantages that helped them maintain elite status. (acad) Single adverbials can be used to convey virtually every kind of stance meaning with respect to a proposition. Certainty and doubt: I shall definitely be at the airport to meet you. (conv) Maybe this damp weather has taken away my enterprise or my book has. (fict) Actuality or reality: A: You can't see it there can you?

B: What? A: The cream. B: No. Well I wasn't looking for it actually.(conv) And he doesn't eat much reallydoes he? (conv) Evidence, particularly with apparently and evidently: You know about this meteor crater in Flagstaff. That apparentlyis why you go to Flagstaff. (conv) The terms of the settlement evidentlyalso require both sides not to talk about the matter publicly. (news) Limitation: Generally, a new broom sweep clean. (news) Imprecision in the communication of a proposition: Oh yeah, see how people sort ofnatter on. (conv) They likedidn't know anything about the city. (conv) You kind ofhave to nail him to the wall. (news) Single adverbs are also used as attitude adverbials, conveying an attitude towards the proposition or giving a judgment about it: I have inevitablycovered a great deal of familiar ground. (acad) Unbelievably,the court was told that they would not help the defence case - a demonstrable falsehood that could have landed the three in jail. (news) Amazingly he was permitted to witness the illicit luftwaffe build-up of the mid-thirties, the preparations in East Prussia for the drive on the USSR, and much else. (news) Finally, single adverbs can be used to communicate the style of speaking (most commonly in conversation, but in other registers as well): Well, frankly,I would rather have a little mud than a hatchet thrown at my back. (news) Confidentially, I'm not too happy with Colonel Cargill." (fict) Given these varied functions of single adverbs, it is not surprising that they are the most common realization of stance adverbials for all four registers. In addition, the most commonly used individual stance adverbials tend to be single adverbs.

Prepositional phrases. The functions of prepositional phrases as stance adverbials are more limited than single adverbs. In news and academic prose they tend to be used for functions which are less important in conversation and fiction, thus accounting for their greater use in the two expository registers. In news, prepositional phrases are often used to convey the source of information, especially with the preposition according to: Venezuela has paid more than $900m dollars in overdue interest on its public sector debt to commercial banks, according to Chase Manhattan.(news) According to later reportsGerard Harte was suspected of triggering the Ballygawley bomb. (news) The driver of the small truck and four family members in the car when fire engulfed the two vehicles, according to Sgt. Rick Fields. (news) Academic prose often uses prepositional phrases to qualify claims, limiting the generality of the proposition: In general, then, recent evidence points to conceptual or linguistic of a fairly high level. (acad) On the whole, however, philosophers have ignored this possibility. (acad) It may also involve explicitly stating that the author's viewpoint presented: In fact I must emphasize again that, in my view, the early were the theoreticians and the Catastrophists were the careful field (acad). News and academic prose also use prepositional phrases for style although these are relatively rare: But what of the car's performance capabilities? In short, they're very impressive. (news) It is, in a word, more modernist. (acad) The answer, in brief, is the method of empirical inquiry, at its best the method of science. (acad) On the other hand, all four of the registers use prepositional phrases the actuality of propositions, particularly with expressions that include the word fact: In fact, the hijack was a plot hatched between the two presenters to listeners, some of whom phoned to find out what was going on. (news) As a matter of fact, at this very moment a theory of those systems is in the process of establishing itself as worthy of independent study. (acad) A less common use of prepositional phrases is to show doubt or attitude by more informal expressions for all I/we know/care. These are most common in fiction, but they also occur in conversation: She might chuck me in tonight for all I know. (conv) "And, for all we know, he may be giving her a message to take to Reuben." (fict) I am so glad to see him up there with the snowy clouds about him that he may dance a jig for all I care! (fict)