Major components of the noun-head phrase 9 page

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 453.

cohesion and contextual fit (especially subject-verb inversion); placement of focus (end focus and double focus); intensification (especially: subject-operator inversion). Through skilful use of fronting combined with inversion, the speaker/writer can exploit the potential of the two most prominent positions in the clause: the opening and the end. The resulting structures adapt the clause to the context or produce some special stylistic effect (or both at the same time).

Use of subject-verb inversion. Subject-verb inversion is found most typically under the following circumstances:

• The clause opens with an adverbial, especially one of place, providing the background or setting for a situation. This adverbial often links the clause explicitly to the preceding text through a definite noun phrase. The opening element may also be a subject predicative linked to the preceding text.

• The verb is intransitive or copular and has less weight than the subject. It often expresses existence or emergence on the scene.

• The clause ends with a long and heavy subject introducing new information, often as an indefinite noun phrase, which may be further developed in the following text.

In other words, these structures conform to the requirements of the information principle and the end-weight principle.

The contextual fit of clauses with subject-verb inversion is such that a simple reordering of subject and verb is generally excluded for a clause in its context: I do her worm for her, when her teacher isn't looking. Then I draw a diagram of the worm, cut open, beautifully labelled. After that comes the frog.The frog kicks and is more difficult than the worm, it looks a little too much like a person swimming. (fict)

Here it is hardly possible to reorder the subject and the verb (After that the frog comes), in part because light-weight verbs are not generally used in final position. The only possible alternative order would be: The frog comes after that. This is less effective than the word order found in the text, which starts with a reference to the preceding text (after that) and moves on to the new referent (the frog), which is in its turn the starting-point of the following sentence. The order in the text also underlines the temporal sequencing of the events narrated.

Opening place adverbial. Place descriptions with overt or implied anaphoric elements are common with subject-verb inversion (subject-verb inversion is in bold, while the initially placed triggering elements are given in []): [On one long wall] hung a row of Van Goghs.(fict ) A massive mirror, framed in intricately-chased silver, hung above a carved pine chest, and [in its glassy depths] trembled reflections of the entire area.[Next to it] stood a silver urn bursting with branches of red berries.(fict) [On the horizon] is a field of view overgrown with nettles.(news) They found an extension to the drawing room with thigh-high cannabis plants growing in polythene bags full of compost. [Nearby] was a 400-square-yard warehouse with more plants flourishing in conditions controlled by artificial lighting and automatic watering systems.(news) In the following passage we find several instances of such locative inversion:The seating blunder saw the Queen sitting with French president Francois Mitterand on her right. [Then] came the Princess of Waleson his right. The Duke of Edinburgh was opposite the Queen, sitting next to EEC chief Jacques Delors–and with his back to Charles. [Opposite him on one of the three tables set out for the lavish dinner] was Prime Minister John Major. [Onthe third table] sat Princess Annein between the prime minister of Greece, Constantine Mitsotakis, and Irish prime minister, Albert Reynolds. (news) <note that then in the second sentence indicates place rather than time> The distribution of information often reflects how a scene is observed (as in the above example). Note the following description of the streets moving by: This was Amsterdam Avenue, with the cross streets moving slowly by. [There] goes Eighty-seventh.[Here] comes Eighty-eighth.(fict) Here and there define a place as proximate v. distant from the point of view of the speaker and are often found in inversion structures:[Here]'s the bag.(conv) [Here] comes the first question.(fict) [There is the dog.Call the dog. (conv) Locative there (as in the last example) should be distinguished from existential there, though a comparison between the two constructions is instructive. A special type of place element triggering subject-verb inversion is an adverbial particle indicating direction: Worry, worry, Alice sat worrying, [in] came Jasper, smiling jaunty, stepping like a dancer, (fict) Billy opened his eyes, and [out] came a deep, resonant tone.(fict) [Back] came the pompous reply: <...>(news) When Sam tugged the rope, [down] came the moneyand he rode off with it in his scooter, leaving $2,500 in his haste to get away. (news) And this being a boiling Bank Holiday Monday the British are burning: [out] comes the sun, [off] come the clothes.(news) This type of structure is unusual in that the opening element does not indicate a background or setting, but is strongly focused. It is used in dramatic narration, to emphasize a sudden change or event. Descriptions with place adverbials are particularly common with subject-verb inversion in fiction and news texts, especially the type realized by a full prepositional phrase. The inversion type with here and there is also common in conversation. The type with a fronted adverbial particle is particularly frequent in fiction.

Opening time adverbial. The opening adverbial may also be one of time, frequently then introducing a new event: For a moment nothing happened. [Then] came voices all shouting together. (fict) [Then] came the turning point of the match.(news) [Again] came the sounds of cheerfulness and better heart.(fict) [First] came the scouts, clever, graceful, quiet.(fict) [Next] came the Chaplain.(fict) [Now] comes the business of sorting out the returned forms.(news) Most of these adverbials imply reference back to preceding, given, information.

Other types of opening adverbials. In academic prose, where there is less scope for place description and narration, we find examples such as the following: Formaldehyde may be generated in various ways. [Among these] is heating a solution of formaldehyde in a <.. .> (acad) [With incorporation, and the increased size of the normal establishment], came changes which revolutionized office administration. (acad) Clauses with subject-verb inversion may open with a fronted predicative or with a fronted ed- or ing-predicate. The information flow in these construction types is much the same as in clauses with opening adverbials.

The verb phrase preceding the subject may be complex, provided that it is lighter than the following subject. For example: Best of all would be[to get a job in Wellingham]. (fict) 5. Among the sports will be[athletics, badminton, basketball, <.. .>. (news) Here is provided[a patchwork of attractive breeding sites, which <. ..>].(acad) It should be noted that the verb phrase is not split with subject-verb inversion, as is the rule with subject-operator inversion.

Unlike subject-operator inversion, which is syntactically obligatory with particular elements in initial position , subject-verb inversion varies with the complexity and information value of the subject and the verb. Compare: 1. Then the night came upin dark blue vapour from the snow. (fict) 2. Then the words came outin a rush. (news) 3. Then came the call from Sergio Leone.(fict) 4. Then came the turning point of the match.(news) The regular subject-verb order is the natural choice in 1 and 2, where the subject is a simple definite noun phrase and the verb is accompanied by elements complementing the verbal meaning. In contrast, inversion is just as natural in 3 and 4, where there is a simple intransitive verb followed by a longer and more informative subject. Subject-verb inversion is excluded with a light-weight pronoun as subject, although ordinary subject-verb order is often possible: On one long wall hung a row of Van Goghs.(fict) cf. *On one long wall hung it/they. But: On one long wall it/they hung. Then came the turning point of the match.(news) cf. *Then came it. But: Then it came. Although inversion is most typically found with long and/or indefinite noun phrases in subject position, we also find examples such as: Watch out! [Here] comes Amanda!(conv) And [then] came that clap of thunder.(fict) [Here] comes the rub.(news) Sitting together on a settee as they faced hostile questioning, Bill Clinton seemed at first to be struggling as he was tackled over the Flowers affair. Then [in] leapt Hillary.(news) Such inversions frequently seem to convey an element of suspense and surprise.

Subject-operator inversion. Subject-operator inversion, or partial inversion, differs from subject-verb inversion in a number of ways: inversion may occur with both transitive and intransitive verbs, especially with the former, there is often a weighty predicate occupying end position in the clause; the opening elements triggering subject-operator inversion are much more restricted; inversion is obligatory where the triggering elements are found and occurs both with light-weight unstressed subject pronouns and with noun-headed subjects; in addition, the effect of the two types of inversion is quite different, as illustrated below.

Negative or restrictive opening elements. Subject-operator inversion is found after opening negative or restrictive coordinators or adverbials, such as: neither, nor, never, nowhere, on no condition, not only, hardly, no sooner, rarely, scarcely, seldom, little, less, only. In the following examples, inversion is marked in bold and triggering elements are marked by []:

1. And she said, you know, [on no account] must hestrain. (conv) 2. [Nor] was therethe faintest scent of ink or the cherry gum and oak bark from which it was made. Nothing. (fict) 3. [Not before in our history] have so many strong influencesunited to produce so large a disaster. (news) 4. [Rarely] are all the constraints on shape, function and manufacturingclearly defined at the commencement of the activity. [Even less] are theyunderstood and their effect, one on another, recognized by the designer. (acad)

Due to the prominent placement, there is an intensification of the force of the negative/restrictive element. Note how the effect is underlined even further by other devices in most of these examples: the expression the faintest and the following sentence fragment Nothing in 2; the use twice of intensifier so in 3; and the parallel structures in the two sentences in 4. Subject-operator inversion after most initial negative/restrictive elements has a rhetorical effect and is virtually restricted to writing. However, subject-operator inversion after initial nor or neither is found in conversation as well as in the written registers. Note also the colloquial expression no way: Oh [no way] do I want to take that. (conv) And if the case went to trial, there wasn't a damn thing Katheryn could do to stop them. And [no way] could sheget Sarah to understand that. (fict) No way expresses strong negation and is obligatorily placed in initial position.

Order of sentence elements and negative scope. Inversion is found only if the negative scope affects the whole of the clause. Thus there is no inversion in: 1. No doubt he will issue his instructions. (fict) 2. Not surprisingly, most studies have concerned themselves with ill effect, notably that of emotional stress. (acad) 3. Not many years ago, it seemed that almost all readability research, and almost all research in linguistics confined itself to the analysis of units no larger than a sentence. (acad) In 1 and 2 the negation is part of the stance adverbial only, while in 3 it is part of the modification of the time adverbial. The main statements are thus expressed in positive terms (e.g. he will issue ...). Occasionally, we find differences in ordering and in some cases meaning with the same or similar forms. Compare: Forms with normal word order: 4. [In no time at all] the hotels wouldbe jammed to the doors. (fict) 5. I could have gone there. [Only] I didn't.I didn't care. (fict) 6. In the winter, sometimes, [rarely], you canhear the thunder of a siren but it is another country. (fict) The following are forms of triggering inversion: 7. [At no time] did heindicate he couldn't cope. (news) 8. [Only then] did hefeel better. (fict) 9. [Rarely] can two sets of forwardshave covered so much ground.(conv) In no time in 4 clearly does not affect the positive nature of the statement: we still conclude that the hotels would be jammed to the doors, while in 7 the implication is he did not ever indicate that he couldn't cope. Example 5 illustrates the use of initial only without inversion in the sense of 'but' or 'except', rather than in its customary restrictive adverb use as in 8. Finally, 6 illustrates the use of rarely meaning 'occasionally, sometimes' rather than 'not very often' (note the following comma, marking a looser connection with the clause). In most examples, however, initial rarely does trigger inversion.

Degree expressions with so and such. There is subject-operator inversion after opening elements consisting of the degree adverb so followed by an adjective or adverb: He refused to stir. [So greatly] had hesuffered, and [so far gone] was he,that the blows did not hurt much. (fict) [So badly] was heaffected that he had to be taught to speak again. (news) The pattern has a degree expression in initial position, usually accompanied by a following comparative complement clause. The effect of the pattern is a further intensification of the degree expression. Compare similar examples with subject-verb inversion triggered by clause-initial such: [Such] is the confusionaboard this vessel I can find no one who has the authority to countermand this singularly foolish order. (fict) [Such] is the gravity of the situationthat it has already sparked an international incident. (news)

Inversion can occur after initial so when it is used as a pro-form pointing back to the predicate of a preceding clause: 1. A: We used to watch that on T.V. B: Yes, [so] did I. (conv) 2. A: French oral's a doddle. B: Is it? A: Yeah, [so] is German reading.(conv) 3. Gail's in, and [so] is Lisa.(conv) 4. She despised him; [so] did Prue Ramsay;[so] did they all.(fict ) 5. As infections increased in women, [so] did infectionsin their babies. (news) This inversion pattern usually includes no part of the verb phrase other than the inverted operator. The pattern expresses semantic parallelism and could be paraphrased with subject-verb order plus additive too, e.g. I did too in 1.This use of so is clearly different from initial so in degree expressions. The initial so in these examples stands for given information, and so has a cohesive effect; it is also in initial position, and so emphasizes the parallelism between the clauses. The subject is the main new communicative point of the clause and is placed in the end focus position after the verb. The result is a structure with double focus. Clauses with the initial pro-form so are closely related to structures with initial nor and neither, which express parallelism with respect to a preceding negative clause: 6. She hadn't known much about life, [nor] had he.(fict) 7. The generalization s truth, if it is true, is not affected by how we count things in question, and [neither] is its falsehoodif it is false. (acad) The meaning could be paraphrased with subject-verb order plus either, e.g. ... and he hadn't either in 6. Again the inversion pattern produces both a cohesive link and a double focus which emphasizes the parallelism. Unlike no and neither, so is sometimes found with subject-verb order: 8. Aye, he's a bastard, [so] he is.(conv) 9. Have we a file? Yes [so] we have,(fict) 10. "I saw it distinctly, sir! You threw salt over your shoulder!" "[So] I did, sir, I confess it." (fict) In these instances the verb is in end focus rather than the subject. The effect is not of adding a proposition parallel to that which has gone before but of emphaticallyaffirming the same proposition implied in the preceding clause; note the combination with aye and yes in 8 and 9.

Special cases of inversion in independent clauses. Some uses of inversion are highly restricted and usually confined to more or less fixed collocations. Types A and B described below are remnants of earlier uses and carry archaic literary overtones. Formulaic clauses with subjunctive verb forms. The combination of the inflectionless subjunctive and inversion gives the highlighted expressions below an archaic and solemn ring: Be it proclaimed in all the schools Plato was right! (fict) If you want to throw your life away, so be it,it is your life, not mine. (fict) "I, Charles Seymour, do swear that I will be faithful, and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth, her heirs and successors according to law, so help me God."(fict) Long Live King Edmund! (fict) Suffice it to say that the DTI was the supervising authority for such fringe banks. (news)

The auxiliary may is used in a similar manner to express a strong wish. This represents a more productive pattern: May it be pointed out that the teacher should always try to extend the girls helping them to achieve more and more. (fict) May God forgive you your blasphemy, Pilot. Yes. May he forgive youand open your eyes, (fict) The XJS may be an ageing leviathan but it is still a unique car. Long may it be so! (news) Long May She Reign! (news) Imperative clauses may contain an expressed subject following don't: Don't do it!

Subject-verb inversion with opening adverbials. The formal conditions and the effect of the inversions illustrated below clearly parallel subject-verb inversion in main clauses following place adverbials and adverbial particles: She pointed to an impressive but imitation oak desk [at which] sat a prissy, tiny, bespectacled individual(fict). In the centre of the green was a pond, beside it was a wooden seat [on which] sat two men talking. (fict) The bee <. . .> was working hopefully, curled in the very kernel of the bloom, when [in] came the kindly officer's little finger.(fict)

Subject-operator inversion with opening negatives/restrictives. Subject-operator inversion can penetrate into dependent clauses under the same circumstances and with the same effect as in main clauses: Mr Teague said that [at no time] was Paul Jonesever hit with a cane or whip, [at no time] was he tied upside down and hit. (fict) Introspection suggests that [only rarely] do we consciously ponder the pronunciations of words. (acad)

Clauses introduced by as and than. Inversion involving an operator on its own is found in formal writing in comparative clauses introduced by as and than, provided that the subject is heavier than the verb. In addition, inversion also occurs in other as-clauses. comparative clauses: 1. Independent agencies are in a better position to offer personal service than are those tied to big chains,believes managing director Daphne Armstrong. (news) 2. The liquid products are fractionally distilled, and refined in the same way as are the petroleum fractions.(acad); other as-clauses: 3. They chatted about Hollywood, and Charlotte was fascinated, as were the other guests.(fict) 4. The contraceptive cap can also spark the syndrome, as can a wound infection.(news) 5. It would be agreeable to pass it by, as have many inquiries into determinism pertaining to decisions and actions.(acad) 6. At least it is only two kisses and not three, as is the Russian custom.(news) Clauses of this latter kind are often reminiscent of inversion with the pro-form so, which may account for the inversion. We might closely paraphrase 3 with:(as) Charlotte was fascinated, so were the other guests. In 6 the pattern is similar to a non-restrictive relative clause introduced by which: … which is the Russian custom.

Hypothetical conditional clauses. In formal writing we find conditional clauses marked by inversion rather than by a subordinator. This is restricted to clauses introduced by had, should, and subjunctive were: "I would be more hopeful," Sandy said, "were it not for the problem of your testimony."(fict) Were it running more slowly,all geologic activity would have proceeded at a slower pace. (acad) He would have accepted only the usual expenses had he undertaken this summer's tour marking the South African Rugby Board's centenary. (news) Should either of these situations occur, wrong control actions may be taken and a potential accident sequence initiated. (acad)

In all of these cases, it is possible to use a paraphrase with if, which is the more common option. For example, we could re-word the first sentence above as follows (with a subjunctive or an indicative verb form): ... if it were/was not for the problem of your testimony.

Alternative and universal conditional clauses with subjunctive verbs. In the examples below, the dependent clauses can be paraphrased by whether it/ he/they be/is/are introducing a clause providing two alternative possible conditions: When the going gets tough, it's these people who react best - be itat a natural disaster, accident or sudden emergency. (news) His passion is really for the others he writes about, be they as famous as Brecht or as obscure as his landlady. (news) They have brought out a range of confectionery for the man in your life, be it father or partner. (news) Examples such as the following are paraphrasable with an uninverted whatever clause, expressing a universal condition: La Bruyere strikes one as a naturally timid man who has somewhat desperately made up his mind to utter his whole self, come what may. (acad) These patterns of inversion are remnants of constructions which at one time were more widespread. They are highly restricted and carry a literary overtone.

Dependent interrogative clauses with inversion. Dependent interrogative clauses are normally introduced by a wh-word, and regularly have ordinary subject-verb order. A more informal alternative, without a connecting link, is found in colloquial English: One lady thought we were turfing - and she said could we turf the lawn for her. (conv) And she said would we like these shirts.(conv) And then he said try it again and she rang and she asked, she said had the cheques come. (conv) The young man who had seen Mac in Westmoreland Street asked was it true that Mac had won a bet over a billiard match. (fict) She needed a backing guitarist and asked Kieran, who she had met once or twice on the road, would he help out.(news) This pattern represents a compromise between direct and indirect speech. It preserves the subject-operator inversion of the independent interrogative clause, but pronouns have been adjusted and verb forms backshifted to the reporting situation. For example, compare in the last example the direct speech form: Will you help out? Note that the examples with said require a change of reporting verb if they are rephrased as ordinary indirect questions: direct speech:She said, "Can/Could you turf the lawn for me?"; semi-direct:She said could we turf the lawn for her; indirect speech:She asked whether we could turf the lawn for her. The compromise form expresses a more direct report than ordinary dependent interrogative clauses.

Inversion in reporting clause.Types of reporting clauses Reporting clauses are appended to direct reports of a person's speech or thought and are on the borderline between independent and dependent clauses. Such clauses contain some kind of reporting verb, either a straightforward verb of speaking/thinking (e.g. say, think) or a verb identifying the manner of speaking (e.g. mutter, shriek), the type of speech act (e.g. offer, promise), the phase of speaking (an aspectual verb such as begin, continue), etc. Such clauses frequently have inversion: "That's the whole trouble," said Gwen, laughing slightly. (fict) "It's the fuel," said the chauffeur, "dirt in the pipe." (fict) "I'd be delighted to pair with you," continued Charles. (fict) Fifties and post-impressionist, thought Alexander, connecting. (fict) Sketching, says Uderzo, is a fast process. (news) Councils, argues Mr Cawley, are being hit by an unenviable double whammy. (news) As shown by the examples, quotation marks identifying the reported text are often missing (especially in news).In news, reporting clauses can also be used for attributions of written text: Where farming used to be the only viable source of income, hundreds of people have found regular work, reveals Plain Tales from Northern Ireland. (news)Inversion is found in medial or final reporting clauses containing a simple verb and a noun-headed subject. But subject-verb order occurs under the same conditions: "Are we to gather that Dreadnought is asking us all to do something dishonest?" Richard asked. (fict)"You can ask one or two of them to stay behind for a drink, if you like," Laura said, "if there's anyone possible."Increasing work loads, job insecurity and changes at work are taking their toll on nurses' health, a report shows today.(news) Reporting clauses may be characterized not only in terms of their inversion (or not) and position relative to the reported clause (initial, medial, or final), but also in terms of their complexity (left expansion, right expansion, no expansion): Final position; right expansion: "Do you in point of fact want us to say that Dreadnought doesn't leak?" asked Richard patiently. (fict)