The subject-matter of phonetics. Sounds of speech.

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 2050.

How do you prove that phonetics is an independent science?

Phonetic is an independent branch of linguistic like lexicology, grammar and stylistic. It studies the sound method, its' aspects and functions. It is quite independent, and develops according to its own laws. To-day the sphere of phonetics is wider and deeper than ever before; phonemes and their distribution in words, their mutual adaptation, stress, syllable formation, intonation, the relation between oral and written speech and a number of other problems have now become objects of phonetic investigation. Phonetics is closely connected with a number of other sciences, such as physics (or rather acoustics), biology, physiology and others. The more phonetics develops, the more various branches of science become involved in the field of phonetic investigation. Phonetics is an essential part of language because it gives language a definite form; - the vocabulary and grammar of a language can function only when the language has phonetic form. Hence, grammar and vocabulary depend on phonetics; they cannot exist outside of phonetics, because all lexical and grammatical phenomena are expressed phonetically. Thus, although phonetics serves as a means of expressing grammatical and lexical phenomena, yet it has laws of its own which are dependent of grammar and vocabulary. Phonetics studies not only separate sounds but their functions as well. It also studies the relation between written and spoken language. Phonetics formulates the rules of pronunciation of separate sounds and sound combinations.

Give examples to prove the significance of phonetics

Phonetic studies the sound method, its' aspects and functions. It studies the sound matter, its aspects and functions.

Give examples to prove that phonetics is connected with other sciences.

Phonetics is connected with linguistic and non-linguistic sciences: acoustics, physiology, psychology, logic, etc.

The connection of phonetics with grammar, lexicology and styl­istics is exercised first of all via orthography, which in its turn is very closely connected with phonetics. Through the system of rules of reading phonetics is connected with grammar and helps to pronounce correctly singular and plural forms of nouns, the past tense forms and past participles of English regular verbs, e.g. /d/ is pronounced after voiced consonants (beg— begged), It!—after voiceless consonants (wish—wished), /id/—after It! (want—wanted). It~is only if we know that /s/ is pronounced after voiceless consonants, /z/ after voiced and /iz/ after sibilants, that we can pronounce the words books, bags, boxes correctly. The ending -ed is pronounced /id/ following /t/ or /d/, e.g. waited /iweitid/, folded /ifauldid/. Some adjectives have a form with /id/, e.g. crooked /'kru-kid/, naked /ineikid/, ragged /'rsegid/. One of the most important phonetic phenomena—sound interchange—is another manifestation of the connection of pho­netics with grammar. For instance, this connection can be observed in the category of number. Thus, the interchange of It—v/, /a—z/, /Ö—Э/ helps to differentiate singular and plural forms of such nouns as: calf—calves II—v/, leaf—leaves II—v/, house-houses /s—z/. Vowel interchange helps to distinguish the singular and the plural of such words as: basis—bases /'beisis—<beisi:z/, crisis — crises /ikraisis—'kraisi:z/, analysis—analyses /ainaelaaia —ainaateshz/ .and also: man—men /man—men/, foot—feet /fut—fi:t/, goose — •geese /gu:s—gi:z/, mouse—mice /maus—mais/. Phonetics is also connected with grammar through its intonation component. Sometimes intonation alone can serve to single out the logical predicate of the sentence. In affirmative sentences the rising nuclear tone may serve to show that it is a question. Cf.:

He 'came _thome. He I came ,home.

Phonetics is also connected with lexicology. It is only due to the-presence of stress, or accent, in the right place, that we can diti guish certain nouns from verbs (formed by conversion), e.g.

I abstract реферат—to abstract извлекать 'object предмет—to ob'ject не одобрять 'transfer перенос—to transfer переносить.

Phonetics is also connected with stylistics; first of all through intonation and its components: speech melody, utterance stress, rhythm, pausation and voice tamber which serve to express emotions, to distinguish between different attitudes on the part of the author and speaker. Very often the writer helps the reader to interpret his ideas through special words and remarks such as: a pause, a short pause, angrily, hopefully, gently, incredulously, etc. For example:

"Now let me ask you girls and boys, would you paper a room with representations of horses?"

Phonetics is also connected with stylistics through repetition of words, phrases and sounds. Repetition of this kind serves the basis of rhythm, rhyme and alliteration. The repetition of identical or similar sounds, which is called allit­eration, helps, together with the words to which they belong, to im­part a melodic effect to the utterance and to express certain emo­tions. Thus, the repetition of the sonant /m/ in the lines of the ballad, given below (together with the other stylistic devices), helps to pro­duce the effect of merriment.

From what point of view can speech sounds be analysed?

Speech sounds can be analysed from the viewpoint of three as­pects: (1) acoustic, (2) physiological and articulatory, (3) functional,

What physical properties of speech do you know?

Speech sounds have a number of physical properties, the first of them is frequency, i.e. the number of vibrations per second. The vocal cords vibrate along the whole of their length, producing fundamental frequency, and along the varying portions of their length, producing overtones, or harmonics. When the vibrations pro­duced by the vocal cords are regular they produce the acoustic impression of voice or musical tone. When they are irregular noise is produced. When there is a combination of tone and noise, either noise or tone prevails. When tone prevails over noise sonorants are produced. When noise prevails over tone voiced consonants are produced. The complex range of frequencies which make up the quality of a sound is known as the acoustic spectrum. Bands of energy which are characteristic of a particular sound are called the sound's for-mants. Perception of the pitch of a speech sound depends upon the fre­quency of vibration of the vocal cords. The higher the pitch of vibra­tions, the higher the pitch level.The frequency of sound depends on certain physical properties of the vibrator, such as mass, length and tension. The second physical property of sound is intensity. Changes in intensity are perceived as variation in the loudness of a sound. The greater the amplitude of vibration, the greater the intensity of a sound; the greater the pressure on the ear-drums, the louder the sound. Intensity is measured in decibels (dbs). Any sound has duration, it is its length or quantity of time during which the same vibratory motion, the same pattern of vibration, are; maintained. The duration of speech sounds is usually measured im milliseconds (msecs).

How does the power, vibrator, resonator, obstructor mechanism work?

The power mechanism consists of the diaphragm , the lungs , the bronchi , the windpipe (or trachea), the glottis, the larynx, the mouth cavity, and the nasal cavity.

The vibrator mechanism (the voice producing mechanism) consists of the vocal cords, they are in the larynx or voice box. The vocal cords are two horizontal folds" off elastic tissue. They may be opened or closed (completely or incompletely), The pitch of the voice is controlled mostly by the tension of the vocal cords. Voice produced by the vocal cords, vibration is modified by the shape and volume of the air passage.

The resonator mechanism consists of the pharynx, the larynx, the mouth cavity, and the nasal cavity.

The obstructor mechanism consists of the tongue, the lips ', the teeth, the soft pal­ate with the uvula, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge.

The four mechanisms (the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor mechanisms) work sinultaneously and that each speech sound is the result of the simul­taneous work of all of them.

What are the articulatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorant?

Articuiatory differences between vowels, consonants and sonorants depend on the three articuiatory criteria. They are:

(1) the presence or absence of an articuiatory obstruction to the
air stream in the larynx or in the supra-glottal cavities;

(2) the concentrated or diffused character of muscular tension;

(3) the force of exhalation.

On the basis of these criteria consonants may be defined as sounds, in the production of which (a) there is an articuiatory obstruction to the air stream (complete, incomplete, intermittent); (b) muscular tension is concentrated in the place of obstruction; (c) the exhaling: force is rather strong.

Vowels may be defined as sounds in the production of which (a) there is no articuiatory obstruction to the air stream; (b) muscular tension is diffused more or less evenly throughout the supra-glottal part of the speech apparatus; (c) the exhaling force is rather weak.

Sonorants are sounds intermediate between noise consonants and vowels because they have features common to both. There is an ob­struction, but not narrow enough to produce noise. Muscular tension-is concentrated in the place of obstruction! but the exhaling force is. rather weak, English sonorants are: /m, n, g, 1, w, r, j/.

Explain the work of the four mechanism in the production of speech sounds.

To analyse a speech sound physiologically and articulatorily some clata on the articulatory mechanism and its work should be introduced. Speech is impossible without the following four mechanisms:

(1) the power mechanism,

(2) the vibrator mechanism,

(3) the resonator mechanism,

(4) the obstructor mechanism.

The four mechanisms (the power, the vibrator, the resonator and the obstructor mechanisms) work sinultaneously and that each speech sound is the result of the simul­taneous work of all of them.

The air, which is necessary for the production of the speech sounds, is pushed out of the lungs. The lungs take in air rapidly and let it out slowly. Most speech sounds are made by using the air which is pushed out of the lungs.

From the lungs the air gets into the bronchial tubes and then into the trochea, at the top of which there is the larynx with the vo­cal cords. The larynx of a man is larger than that of a woman and <can be easily seen as a projecting lump. The space between the vocal folds is called the glottis. The vocal folds vibrate about 130 times for a man's voice and about 230 times for a woman's voice each sec­ond. Variations in the speed (frequency) of the vibrations of the vo­cal cords produce changes of pitch: the higher the frequency, the higher the pitch of the sound produced.

Longer and larger vocal cords produce slower vibrations, i.e. low­er frequency and lower pitch. Consequently voices of men are much deeper in pitch than those of women.

The area above the glottis is called the supra-glottal vocal tract. It consists of the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The mouth and the nasal cavities are separated by the hard palate and the soft palate with the uvula.

The soft palate, or velum, can move to the pharynx wall and
block off the nasal cavity—velic closure, it is part of the articulation
of all oral consonants. ^ ,When the soft palate is pressed against the back part of the tongue 3t is a velar closure, e.g. Ik, gl have both—a velic and a velar closure; /rj/ is a nasal sound, it is pronounced with the velar closure, the velic closure does not take place in its production.The uvula is at the back of the soft palate, neither English, nor Russian have uvular articulation.

The bujk of the tongue can be approximately divided into front part with the blade and the tip, middle part, and back part with the root (see above). In the production of English and Russian forelingual consonants -the tip of the tongue may occupy a number of positions.

When the soft palate is raised and forms a closure against the pharynx wall, the entrance to the nasal cavity is shut off. Most speech sounds are pronounced with the soft palate raised, they are called oral. "When the soft palate is lowered the air passes out through the nasal cavity, it happens when normal breathing takes place and when nasal sounds are produced, e.g. English /m, n, r/, Russian /m, m\ h, h7.

The oral cavity begins with the lips: upper and lower hp. They can be rounded, as for /w/, protruded, as for the Russian /y/, spread, as for /i:/. The lower lip may move close to the upper teeth, as for /f, v/. The two lips can close to block the air stream, as for bilabial /p, b, ml.

The teeth act as obstacles to the air stream. The upper teeth are the most important for the articulation of dental, or dorsal,— the blade of the tongue is against the upper teeth, alveolar It, d, I, s, z, n/, interdental /9, Ы, labiodental hi. The alveolar ridge can be felt with the tip of the tongue as a corrugated ridge just behind the upper front teeth.

The hard palate can be felt with the tip of the tongue, it is behind the alveolar ridge. In the articulation of the sound /j/ the tongue makes a movement towards the hard palate. The centre of the tongue can be grooved along mid-line, the sides, raised, e.g. /s, z/. The front of the tongue can be raised to the hard palate, e. g. English'/j/. The back of the tongue can be raised to the velum, e.g. the Rus­sian /x/, it is pressed against the velum, e.g. the Russian /к, г/ and! the English /k, g/. The ability to detect the movements made by the tongue dimin­ishes towards the back of the tongue.

Characterize each of the cardinal vowels according to D. Jones

The first linguist who tried to describe and classify vowel sounds for all languages was D. Jones. He devised the system of 8 Cardinal Vowels. The basis of the system is physiological.The system of Cardinal Vowels is an international standard. Cardinal vowel No, 1 corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue raised as close as possible to the palate. The gradual lowering of the tongue to the back lowest position gives another point for cardinal vowel No. 5. The lowest front position of the tongue gives the point for cardinal No. 4. The upper back limit for the tongue position gives the point for cardinal No. 8. These positions for cardi­nal vowels No. 1, 4, 5 and 8 were copied from X-ray photographs. The tongue positions between these points were X-rayed*and the equi-distant points for № 2, 3, 6, 7.were symbols for No 8.