Major components of the noun-head phrase 11 page

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 533.

Coordinative connections are correlated semantically with subordinate connections so that a compound sentence can often be transformed into a complex one with the preservation of the essential relational semantics between the clauses: There was nothing else to tell, so I soon began kidding again. – I soon began kidding again because there was nothing else to tell. Both compound and complex sentences can contain several instances of coordination: I like cars and I like boats and I like planes. Or subordination: I see that you have spent the money which I gave you. With multiple subordination, we must take special care to keep the different levels of subordination apart. The main clause in a complex sentence may have several subordinate clauses with different functions: He thought [that they would leave (when the car arrived)]. This is called consecutiveor successive subordination.

It forms a hierarchy of clauses. Here each succeeding subordinate clause is subordinate to the preceeding clause. Hence, the form of dependence is lineal or direct. Consequently, the clauses are in the first, second, etc. degree of subordination. The subordinate clauses with a lineal (consecutive) dependence may be of different types.

Several instances of subordination may occur at the same level. This is parallel heterogeneous subordination: The speakers [who represented different organizations] were unanimous in the problem solution [which is so ardently desired]. [What I said] is [what I meant]. Sometimes subordination and coordination may be combined within one sentence, in which case we may have compound-complex and complex-compound sentences. A compound-complex sentence is essentially a compound sentence in which at least one coordinate clause is extended by a subordinate one: I know [that she loathes me], but I'll make her love me. The lightning flashed and the rain fell [as we entered the house]. A complex-compound sentence is essentially a complex sentence with two or more subordinate clauses joined by coordination: I know [that you trust me] and [that you tell me the truth]. This is called parallel homogeneous subordination, or co-subordination, and the subordinate clauses are homogeneous. The length of the composite sentence in terms of the number of its clausal parts is in principle unlimited; it is determined by the informative purpose of the speaker.

5.1. The compound sentence. A compound sentence consists of two or more coordinate clauses of equal rank which form one syntactical whole in meaning and intonation. The first clause is called the leading clause (leader clause), the successive clauses are called sequential. The main semantic feature of the compound sentence is that it follows the flow of thought; thus the content of each successive clause is related to the previous one. The compound sentence usually describes events in their natural order. The clauses are sequentially fixed. The opening clause plays the leading role, and each successive clause is joined to the previous clause either syndetically or asyndetically. Syndetic coordination is realized with a number of conjunctions, such as and, but, or, nor, for, or with conjunctive adverbs so, yet, still, otherwise, therefore, etc. Structurally, coordinate clauses, either leading or sequential, may belong to the same communicative types as simple sentences: You may go, but don't be late for dinner! I had to leave at once, for whatever else could I have done? In writing, coordinate clauses are marked off by a comma, a semicolon, a colon, or a dash. Sometimes they are not separated graphically at all. In speaking, they are separated by pauses.

From the point of view of the relationship between coordinate clauses, scholars distinguish four kinds of coordinate connection copulative, adversative, disjunctive, and causative-consecutive, expressed not only by means of coordinating connectives, but also by the general meaning of clauses (especially in asyndetic coordination).

Copulative coordination implies that two events or ideas conveyed by coordinate clauses are merely joined in time and place. Copulative connectors are: and, nor, (neither)... nor, not only... but (also); conjunctive adverbs then, moreover. And is the conjunction most frequently used to realize copulative coordination. It often expresses a very general meaning of addition: We speak English and they speak French. Copulative clauses in English may have more or less clear reference to some adverbial meaning - temporal, causal, concessive, resultative, conditional, etc. Temporal relations imply that the events described in copulative coordinate clauses may be simultaneous or successive: The sky was blue and the birds were flying in it (simultaneity). The door opened, and an old man stepped out on the porch (succession). Causal relations can be identified in the following examples: He didn't have any money and he was ashamed (= He was ashamed because he didn't have money). It was a Monday and the market was empty (= The market was empty because it was Monday). In sentences beginning with a verb in the imperative mood, the first clause implies a condition for the fulfillment of the action in the second clause: Take these pills, and you will feel better (= If you take these pills, you will feel better). The action of the verb-predicate in the sequential clause may result from the action of the leading clause (the relation of result): Life is a difficult business and we have to work hard to survive.

Owing to its vague copulative meaning, the conjunction and may also link clauses with adversative connections (the meaning of the second clause is either contrasted to the first): The family was rich, and Jimmy never knew where the money was coming from. Or causative-consecutive connections (the meaning of the second clause contains the consequence of the first: The fire in the stove had gone out and they had dinner in the cold. Money was by no means plentiful and in consequence there was endless borrowing and paying up among them. Temporal and consecutive/resultative meanings may be created by the predicate verb in the leading clause: Children came from school and it was time for breakfast. Then they began to watch a feature film. The interrelations existing between the action in the leading clause and in the sequential clause may be that of time and concession: It was getting dark, and he had ten miles to go (= Though it was getting dark, he had ten miles to go). Conjunction nor joins two negative clauses: I didn't recognize the girl, nor did I remember her name. Correlative pairs neither ... nor, not only ... but (also) express mere addition: I not only remembered the girl's name, but I also knew everything about her family. Conjunctive adverb then joins clauses describing successive events: We went along the street, then we turned to the left. Copulative connection may also be expressed asyndetically: She was frowning; she wanted to go. The bus stopped, a lady got in, then another lady. Their hair was cropped; they wore jeans.

Adversative coordinationlinks clauses containing opposition, contradiction, or contrast. Adversative connectors are: conjunctions but, while, whereas, conjunctive adverbs yet, still, nevertheless, nontheless, conjunctive particle only. Adversative coordination may also be realized asyndetically. The main adversative conjunction is but, which expresses adversative connection in a very general way. But always expresses a contrast in meaning: I'm old, but you are young. The clause introduced by but conveys some event that is opposite to what is expected from the contents of the first clause: The story was amusing, but nobody laughed. A compound sentence with but often implies a concessive relationship: Though the story was amusing, nobody laughed. However, a but-clause is used to stress the contradiction between the first and the second event. A but-clause often contains an unexpected or contradictory consequence. It may also give the reason for which the expected event did not take place: I wanted to call you up, but my telephone was out of order. The implied consequence is: I didn't call you up. The first clause may contain a modal phrase or an oblique mood form: I would have called you up, but my telephone was out of order (consequence implied). But may also join clauses contrasted in meaning: The system of noun forms is very simple, but the system of verb tense is most intricate. Conjunctions while and whereas express contrastive relations: Boris is a teacher, while his brother is a musician. Some people prefer going to the theatre, whereas others will stay at home watching TV programmes. Among coordinative connectives the particle only is frequently used to join clauses with adversative connection: All your classmates work with this programme, only you don't know how to use it. Contrastive relations may be conveyed by asyndetic coordination: All your arguments didn't convince me, they made me feel boring. Disjunctive connection denotes choice, usually between the mutually exclusive alternatives. Disjunctive conjunctions are or either... or, conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise. Conjunction or introduces an alternative. Usually, the alternatives are taken to exclude each other: You can join us at the station, or we can wait for you at home. Inclusive interpretations also occur, where or approaches the meaning of and: We can eat now or we can eat later – I don't mind which.

Correlative either emphasizes the exclusion of one of the alternatives: Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you. The clause introduced by or may express restatement or correction of what is said in the first clause: We were talking about books, or rather he was talking and I was listening. Coordinate clauses joined by disjunctive connectors may contain an implied condition, real or unreal: Hurry up, or you will be late (=If you don't hurry up, you will be late). If the first part is negative, the implied condition is positive: Don't be late, otherwise you may not be let in (If you are late, you are not be let in). John is busy, otherwise he would be here (If John were not busy, he would be here). John is busy, or he would have come (If John were not busy, he would have come).

Causative-consecutive coordination links clauses in such way that one of them contains a reason and the other - a sequence: The weather was fine, so there were many people on beach. The days became longer, for it was now springtime. The second clause may contain either the reason or the result of the event conveyed by the previous clause. The only causative coordinating conjunction is for. Consecutive connectives are so, so that, therefore, hence, then. A causative clause may be also joined asyndetically: At first I thought that they were brother and sister, they were so much alike. Conjunction for is intermediate between subordination and coordination. It is most often treated as a coordinating conjunction, because its semantic application is to introduce clauses containing an explanation or justification of the idea expressed by the previous clause: The land seemed almost as dark as the water, for there was no moon. Sometimes the consequence may serve as a justification of the previous statement: John must have gone, for nobody answers the call. A for-clause differs from a subordinate clause of reason in that it never precedes the clause it is joined to. If a sentence begins with for, it means that the sentence is linked with the previous one: When I saw her in the river I was frightened. For at that point the current was strong. So that is also intermediate between subordination and coordination. When used after a comma in writing or a pause in speaking its connection with the previous clause is looser and it performs the function of a coordinating conjunction: John is unlikely to come soon, so that we'd better go home.

The commonest type of the compound sentence is a two-clause construction. On the other hand, predicatively longer sentences than two-clause ones, from the point of view of semantic correlation between the clauses, are divided into open and closed. Copulative and enumerative types of connection, if they are not varied in the final sequential clause, form open coordinations which could continue indefinitely: Sometimes they were too large and sometimes they were too small; sometimes they were too far from the center of things and sometimes they were too close; sometimes they were too expensive and sometimes they wanted too many repairs; sometimes they were too stuffy and sometimes they were too airy. A fault that made the house unsuitable was always found. (fict)

In the multi-clause compound sentence of a closed type the final part is joined on an unequal basis with the previous ones, whereby a finalization of the expressed chain of ideas is achieved. The most typical closures in such compound sentences are effected by conjunctions and and but. His fingernails had been cleaned, his teeth brushed, his hair combed, and he had been dressed in formal black.

5.2. The complex sentence. A complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built on the principle of subordination. The complex sentence of minimal composition includes two clauses - a principal/main one and a subordinate/dependent one: I respect him (main) because he is always telling the truth. (dependent) The terms “main” and “dependent” are relative, since there are constructions where the principal clause is represented by only a component of a sentence part, e.g. What I'd like to do now is to write an article on this problem. Although the principal clause positionally dominates the subordinate clause, the two form a semantic and syntactic unity. Complex sentences correlate with simple ones and are formed according to the same structural patterns. The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either syndetically by subordinating connectors (conjunctions, connective pronouns or adverbs), or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically. Complex sentences are classified according to the function of the subordinate clauses. Functional classification of subordinate clauses is done on the simple sentence-part analogy.

Subordinate clauses may be finite and/or non-finite, depending upon the structure of their verb phrase. A finite dependent clause contains a verb phrase which is marked for tense or modality. Finite dependent clauses are regularly marked by a clause link, either a subordinator or a wh-word. The grammatical roles of finite dependent clauses are many and varied. It is not always clear to what extent clauses should be regarded as independent or as part of other structures. There are degrees of integration, ranging from clear subordination to loosely attached structures. As a result, all dependent clauses fall into the clearly subordinate types and more peripheral types.

Clearly subordinate clauses perform functions of different parts of the sentence: subject, predicative, apposition, attribute, adverbial modifier. Traditionally, these numerous types of clauses are arranged in three groups: nominal clauses, attributive clauses, and adverbial clauses.

Their grammatical function can always be tested by replacing the clause with a simpler unit, such as a pronoun, adjective, adverb, noun phrase. Subject: That he didn't tell the truth is awful. - It is awful. Object: I know what to do. - I know something. Predicative: The results are what I did not expect. - They are interesting. Attribute: I found a place where we could have a talk. - I found such kind of place. Adverbial: Bring me the books when you next visit us. - Bring me them then. From the point of view of their nominative features, all the subordinate clauses are divided into three semantic groups. Categorial classification of subordinate clauses is based on the part-of-speech classification.

In terms of syntactical positions all the subordinate clauses are divided into three groups: clauses of primary nominal positions to which belong subject, predicative, and object clauses; clauses of secondary nominal positions to which belong attributive clauses and adverbial clauses. The device of subordination is used to join clauses with a different degree of interdependence or fusion. Therefore some clauses – subject, predicative, most object clauses – are obligatory for the completeness of main parts, which are otherwise deficient. For instance, in the sentence I think you are right it is impossible to drop the object clause, as the part * I think makes no sense. Most adverbial clauses are optional, not essential for the completeness of the main clause. Thus if we drop the subordinate part in the sentence We'll watch a film in the evening, when you come back, the part left will be identical with a simple sentence: We'll watch a film in the evening.

According to its syntactical function and the word it refers to, the subordinate clause may be placed before, after, or in the middle of the main clause. If closely connected, a clause may be joined without any punctuation mark. I know you are not guilty. This is the man I told you about.

The principal clauses of complex sentences are usually not classified, though their meanings are not neutral with regard to the meanings of the subordinate clauses. Cf.. He will come because he needs your help. He will come if he needs your help. Semanlically, the main clause generally dominates the subordinate clause, as it contains the main information of the utterance. However, there are cases when one part is as important as the other and even cases when the subordinate clause is the central informative part of the sentence and the main clause is less important, maintaining only the immediate communicative connection with the listener: I asked him if he knew the man.

1. Nominal clauses name an event as a certain fact: That his proposal remained answered frustrated him. - That fact frustrated him. They are used as subject, subject predicative, or direct object in the main clause. Finite nominal clauses are introduced by the omissible subordinator that or by a wh-word. Subject clauses are usually extraposed, though the following examples illustrate them in their basic clause element positions. That - clauses: That this was a tactical decision <S> quickly became apparent. (news)They believe that the minimum wage could threaten their jobs. (news) The important point, he said, was that his party had voted with the Government more often in the last decade than in the previous one. (news) Wh-clauses: "What I don't understand," she said, "is why they don't let me know anything." (fict) Understanding how a planet generates and gets rid of heatis essential if we are to understand how that planet works. (acad) Wh-clauses may also appear as other clause elements: Any reciprocal learning will depend mainly on what Japanese companies choose to make available. (news) Give whoever has ityour old Cub. (fict) Perhaps it is us who made them what they are(fict)

Nominal wh-clauses are often divided into two types: dependent interrogative clauses(or indirect questions)and nominal relative clauses.Compare: 1. I forgot to ask you what was in the caravans,the sleeping arrangement. (conv) 2. I mean basically we can go up the Top Shop and buy what we likecan't we? (conv) Example 1 contains a dependent interrogative clause; notice that we might paraphrase it as 'I forgot to ask you this question, about what...'. In the nominal relative clause 2, the wh-word can be paraphrased by that which or anything which, i.e. with an antecedent and a relativizer as ordinary relative clauses. That-clauses are further used as complements in adjective phrases 3 and noun phrases 4: 3. He was unaware that a Garda Inquiry was being conducted into the allegation,he stated. (news) 4. There is a fear that such rules will be over-bureaucratic.(news) Wh-clauses, characteristically more versatile than that-clauses, may appear as complements in adjective phrases 5, noun phrases 6, and prepositional phrases 7: 5. Be very careful what you tell me.(fict) 6. If he were in a hurry it opens up the interesting question why he should be in a hurry.(fict) 7. She was afraid of what might happen if Chielo suddenly turned round and saw her.(fict) A nominal clause is closely integrated with the main clause in which it is embedded. It cannot normally be left out without injuring the structure of the main clause. Its freedom of movement is limited.

Clauses containing direct speechare often analysed as nominal clauses, embedded within the clause containing the reporting verb: Veronica said, "Take them both up to their room, Nanny."(fict) However, the relationship between the clauses is looser in such structures than is normally the case with nominal clauses. Where the clause containing the reporting verb is short and mobile, it is indeed best regarded as a dependent peripheral element. There is, however, no clear line of demarcation, and alternative analyses are often equally justified. Because nominal clauses are normally selected or controlledby a preceding verb, adjective, noun or preposition, they are frequently referred to as complement clauses.

All nominal clauses have a function approximating to that of a noun or a nominal phrase, they may fulfill the function of a basic part of the main clause: a subject clause functions as subject of the main clause which has no subject of its own, a predicative clause functions as predicative to the link verb within the main clause. An object clause refers to verbs in different forms and functions, to adjectives, statives and occasionally nouns, and may be obligatory or optional. An appositive clause refers to a noun with a very general meaning and is therefore essential to the meaning of the sentence. Owing to their essential structural and semantic role in the sentence, all nominal clauses are very closely connected with the main clause, and if such a clause is removed, both structure and the meaning of the sentence are changed or become ungrammatical.

1.1. Subject clausesmay be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, because, the way), correlatives (either... or, whether... or), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or pro-verbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why). Complex sentences with subject clauses are of two patterns:

1. With a subject clause preceding the predicate of the main use: a) What I need is a piece of good advice. Why she did is a mystery, b) That he has not married yet is what surprised me most. Subject clauses of this type cannot be joined asyndetically, as the opening words signal the subordinate status of the clause.

2. With a subject clause in final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by formal it. It seemed unfair to him that should work harder than his wife.

1.2. Object clauses may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, lest), correlatives (either...or, whether...or), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or pro-adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, why, how). An object clause may refer to any verbal form, either finite or non-finite: I don't know why I like you so much. It may refer to an adjective or a stative: He was glad none was in.

The usual place of an object clause is after the principal clause, though it may be placed before the principal clause for the purpose of connecting two thoughts, the object clause denoting something familiar, mentioned previously: Whether she had been right in this she was utterly unable to tell. He said he would go back to dinner at Tim's. Like objects in a simple sentence, object clauses may vary in their relation to the principal clause and in the way they are attached to the word they refer to or depend on.

An object clause may directly follow the word it refers to: I know when I am wasting time and energy. An object clause may be preceded by formal it: I like it when people are kind to me. I insist upon it that you tell me the truth. Object clauses parallel in function to indirect objects are very are. However, they are possible, the necessary condition for it being that the object clause should be followed by a direct object: You may give whoever you like any presents. An object clause may function like a cognate object: He lived what might have been thought very interesting live. A prepositional object clause is joined to the main clause by prepositions (after, about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as to, except). If a preposition is very closely attached to the preceding verb adjective (agree upon, call for, comment upon, depend on, hear of, insist on) it generally precedes the object clause: I want to be paid for what I did. A peculiar feature of object clauses lies in their ability to render implicit adverbial meanings introduced by the corresponding relative adverbs of time, place, manner, cause, etc.: How long he walked he didn't know (time). I wondered come (cause). I asked him how he liked London. (manner). Attributive (relative) clauses function as modifiers to a word of nominal character (noun, pronoun, numeral), which is called the antecedent. Usually, an attributive clause immediately follows its antecedent, although some types may occasionally be distant.

2. Predicative clauses may be introduced by conjunctions (at, whether, as, as if, as though, because, lest), correlatives (either...or, whether...or), conjunctive pronouns (who, whoever, what, whatever, which) or pro-adverbs (where, wherever, when, whenever, how, why). It has a fixed position in the sentence – it always follows a link verb (be, feel, look, seem, appear, remain, become, sound). It performs the function of the nominal part of the predicate. Predicative clauses may occur as parts of two structurally different kinds of sentences:

1. They may follow the main clause in which the subject is a notional word of abstract semantics (thing, question, problem, news, sensation, rule, trouble). They disclose the meaning of the subject: The fact was that he had forgotten about it. The trouble was whether we could manage it ourselves or not.

2. They may follow the main clause in which the subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it. They describe the situation, either directly or by means or comparison: It was as if they had not been there at all.

Predicative clauses with comparative meaning are introduced by comparative conjunctions (as, as if, as though) It was as though our cooperation was forgotten. They should not be confused with adverbial clauses of comparison. A predicative clause immediately follows the link verb, which does not express complete predication without the clause. In the case of an adverbial clause, the preceding verb is that of complete predication and the clause may be distant from the verb it modifies. He nodded vigorously, as though it were the most reasonable solution. (adverbial clause). Predicative clauses may be joined asyndetically. In this case they are usually separated by a comma or a dash: The effect was, his mother left him alone.

3. Relative clauses name an event-fact which gives a characteristic to the substantive entity: The man who came in the morning left a message. - That man left a message. A relative clause (also called “adjectival clause” in some grammars) is characteristically a postmodifier in a noun phrase. It is introduced by a wh-word (relative pronouns: who, whose, whom, what, which, that; or pro-adverbs: when, where, whence, wherein), which have a grammatical role in the relative clause in addition to its linking function. The relativizer points back to the head of the noun phrase, which is generally referred to as the antecedent. If the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative words (who, whom, whose) are used. If the antecedent denotes a thing or notion, the relative words which, whose, or that are used; of these that is less formal. Attributive clauses fall into two types, depending on the degree of connection and the relation they bear to the antecedent: restrictive or non-restrictive.