Major components of the noun-head phrase 12 page

Date: 2015-10-07; view: 526.

1. Restrictive or limiting clauses are used to establish the reference of the antecedent, while non-restrictive relatives give additional information which is not required for identification. Limiting clauses restrict the meaning of the antecedent, so that when the clause is left out, the sense of the sentence is seriously impaired; they may be joined to the main clause by prepositional relative pronouns: We have 30 men who are working from 6 am to 11 pm and most of the extra payments we would expect to receive may go on overtime. (news) In this example the restrictive clause identifies a group of men who are working long hours.

Contact clauses are always limiting, for both the main and the subordinate clause complete each other: I know the stories you have been feeding him. This is the kind of job I'd like.

2. Non-restrictive (descriptive) clauses supply additional information which does not restrict or specify the meaning of the antecedent. They provide optional, extra information and may be left out without any serious change in the meaning of the sentence. They are joined by the same connectives as limiting clauses, although the relative pronoun that and asyndetic connection hardly ever occur: He warned the public not to approach the men, who are armed and dangerous. (news) The non-restrictive clause in this example gives information about some particular men whose identity is already known. Restrictive and non-restrictive clauses differ in a number of respects: the choice of relativizer, the type of antecedent, etc. They are separated by a semicolon, a dash, or even by a full stop. Adjectival clauses can express implicit adverbial meanings through their adverbial connectors: It was the time when they were friends (time). There was no reason why she should not try again (cause). Some types of relative descriptive clauses refer back to whole sentences, not just to nouns. They are not used as postmodifiers of nouns. This is true of nominal relative clauses, where the wh-word can be regarded as representing both the antecedent and the relativizer. It is also applies to so called sentential relative clausesor sentence relatives, introduced by which, occasionally by that: All you told me was that Miss Ann was retiring but I hadn't to tell anyone, which I haven't done, which I don't intend do. (conv) The waves are transverse, which means that the direction of oscillation has to be perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the wave. (acad)

A sentential relative clause can be paraphrased by expressions such as something which ( where the which-clause is actually a postmodifier in a noun phrase) or and that (with a coordinate clause). Sentence relatives are most commonly used to convey an attitude or value judgment about a proposition, as in the following examples: We seem to be taking on more than hopefully the old, the old wages at the moment, which is encouraging. (conv) Mom washed her hands of Kitty after the last incident, which isn't as heartless as it sounds. (fict) Sentence relatives are also used to comment on the truth or likelihood of a proposition: Okay, supposedly she claims that he hit her and winded her and she screamed after she was winded, yeah, which is an impossibility anyway but that's okay. (conv) No risk for me; all I have to do is walk in and laser him. Assuming, of course, that he's in his apartment, which isn't likely. (fict)

4. Appositive clauses may be introduced by conjunctions (that, if, whether, as if, as though), conjunctive pronouns and pro-adverbs (what, how). Appositive clauses are not separated by a comma and cannot be joined asyndetically. Appositive clauses are very similar to relative clauses. Cf.: The story that I wrote was published (relative clause: that can be replaced by which). The story that I had resigned was published (appositive: that means 'that is', and cannot be replaced by which). Appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent of abstract semantics (idea, thought, feeling, fact, impression, reason, doubt, question, thing, remark, probability): The question how did she get the information still worried him. The fact that I might never have seen her is rather appalling. Appositive clauses may refer to a whole clause: I at once noted - what my husband had not - that our son had come to tell us something very important. (fict)

5. Adverbial clauses make their event-nomination into a dynamic relation characteristic of another event or a process or a quality: All will be well if we trust each other. – All will be well on condition that we trust each other.Adverbial clausesare used as adverbials in the main clause, generally as circumstance adverbials. As with adverbials in general, they are optional and have some freedom of positioning; both initial and final placement are common. Adverbial clauses are regularly marked by a subordinator indicating the relationship to the main clause. I/ we were having a caravan like that, I would be too frightened to let it. (conv) There's a term and a half left before he moves on.(conv) When the houses were ready, prices of up to 51,000 were quoted. (news) Most ions are colourless, although some have distinct colours.(acad) Adverbial clauses are usually classified according to their meaning (the relation they bear to the main clause) into three groups. 1. Clauses of time and place with the common semantic basis of temporal and spatial localization. 2. Clauses of manner and comparisonwiththe common semantic basis of qualification to the action or event rendered by the principal clause. 3. Clauses of circumstantial semantics are connected with the meaning of the principal clause by various circumstantial associations: clauses of attendant circumstances, condition, cause, reason, result (consequence), concession, purpose. Adverbial clauses serve to express a variety of adverbial relations and, consequently, they are introduced by a great number of subordinating conjunctions. An adverbial clause may qualify the whole main clause, the verbal predicate or any verbal part, and also parts expressed by an adjective or adverb.

1. Adverbial clauses of time and place. Clauses of place define the place or direction of the action expressed in the principal clause. They may be introduced by the connectors where, wherever, everywhere (that). Why can't we go where it's warm? He was standing where he always had stood. Wherever they came people greeted them enthusiastically.

Clauses of time characterize the action in the principal clause from the temporal point of view. They may be introduced by the conjunctions or adverbial connectives: as, as soon as, as long as, when, whenever, while, now that, till, until, after, before, since, once, directly, instantly, conjunctive phrases the time (that), the day, the moment, the instant, next time, every (each) time: When the cat is away the mice will play. Never tell a thing to a woman till it's done. I'll talk to him as soon as I get back.

Every conjunction or relative adverb/phrase adds a particular shade of meaning to the temporal relation – priority, simultaneity, succession of actions, the beginning or the end of the action, repetition, gradual development, coincidence of two actions, etc.

A special variety of complex sentence with a time clause is presented by constructions in which the main predicative information is expressed in the subordinate clause, the actual meaning of temporal localization being rendered by the principal clause of the sentence: I was waiting downstairs when Terry came back. This type of complex sentence is known in linguistics as inversive, what is meant by the term, is semantics taken against the syntactical structure.

2. Adverbial clauses of manner give some qualitative characteristics of the action in the main clause. They may refer to the verbal predicate or any verbal part as the only modifier of the action expressed, to a detached attribute or to an adverbial modifier. They may be introduced by the conjunction as, connective word the way. There are different types of adverbial clauses of manner:

1. Clauses of manner which modify the predicate of the main clause by attributing some quality to it: I'm sorry I talked the way I did. She could cook the cake as no one else could do.

2. Clauses of manner which refer to attributes or predicatives characterizing a state or quality of a person/non-person: Shocked, as one could be in such circumstances, she didn't give a sign of it. 3. Clauses of manner which refer to an adverbial modifier, giving additional information or explanation concerning it. The connection between the clauses is rather loose, and the subordinate clause is generally set off by commas: He said it with contempt, as a serious expert should treat such kind of articles.

3. Adverbial clauses of comparison characterize the action expressed by the predicate in the main clause by comparing it with some real or hypothetical circumstance or action. Clauses of comparison may be introduced by the conjunctions (as, as though, than), correlatives (as...as, so...as, as if): Their voices rose and fell as though they were singing together. Her broken heart healed sooner than she expected. Sometimes they have inverted word order: He was as gentle as were most of his friends.

4. Adverbial clauses of condition contain some condition (either real or unreal) which makes the action in the main clause possible. They may be introduced by the conjunctions if, unless, in case, provided (that), providing (that), suppose (that), supposing (that), considering (that), given (that), wanted (that), granting (that), admitting (that), presuming (that), seeing (that). They may also be joined asyndetically by means of link-inversion: Had the color of the car been to my taste, I should have bought it. Depending on the relation between the subordinate and main clauses and on the use of tense and mood forms, conditional clauses are subdivided into three types:

1. Clauses of real condition, when the actions or events in both the clauses are regarded as real possible facts: If you want to be a teacher, you should know a lot.

2. Clauses of open condition (unreal condition referring to the present or future) denote hypothetical situations or circumstances which may be realized in the present or future. Accordingly, the subjunctive mood forms are used both in the subordinate and the principal clause: If I were you, I would change my mind.

3. Clauses of rejected condition (unreal condition referring to the past) imply non-fulfillment of the condition, as the actions or events described in the conditional clause refer to the past and the time of their realization is over. The subjunctive mood forms are used in the subordinate clause and in the main clause: We might have persuaded her not to do it if she had not been so lighthearted.

5. Adverbial clauses of concession denote concessive relations: the action described in the main clause is carried out or takes place despite the action expressed in the subordinate clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions although, though, if, as, whether...or, even if, even though, even when, though...yet, conjunctive pronouns or pro-adverbs whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever, conjunctive phrases no matter how, no matter what, for all that, despite that, in spite of the fact, despite the fact. There are three types of concessive clauses, which differ in their relation to the main clause and in the way they are connected. 1. Clauses of admitted (real) concession express a real condition, despite which the action in the principal clause is carried out. The predicate in the subordinate clause is in the indicative mood: Though all efforts fail, we shall never surrender. I could always eat, however excited I was. 2. Clauses of open (hypothetical) concession express an unreal condition, despite which the action in the principal clause is carried out. The predicate in the subordinate clause may be in the indicative or in the subjunctive mood: Though she may disapprove of our arguments, she will have to put up with them. 3.Clauses of disjunctive or alternative concession admit two possible alternatives, both of which may be unreal, or may refer to the future: Whether Miss Dana be interested or not, she is fascinated with his work. You shall do your job whether you like it or not.

6. Adverbial clauses of purpose contain a contemplated or planned action, which is to be achieved by the action expressed in the main clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions that, so that, lest, so as, so, in order that, for fear that. The predicate in the subordinate clause is in the subjunctive mood: He opened the window wide that he might hear the conversation below. I tell you all this so that you may understand me perfectly. Adverbial clauses of cause express the reason, cause, or motivation of the action expressed in the main clause. They may be introduced by the conjunctions as, because, since, so, that, lest, seeing (that), considering, conjunctive phrases for the reason that, in view of the fact that, insofar as, by reason of: As he wanted to air the room, he opened the window wide.

7. Adverbial clauses of result (consequence) denote some consequence or result of the action expressed in the main clause. They may be introduced by the conjunctions (so that) connectives (as a result, therefore, seeing that). I was so tired that I could hardly speak. Adverbial clauses of attendant circumstance present the event as some sort of background in relation to the event described by the principal clause. They are introduced by the conjunctions while and as: As (while) the reception was going on, Miss Olga was engaged in a lively conversation with the pretty young girl. The construction of attendant circumstance may be taken to render contrast: Indeed, there is but this difference between us – that she wears fine clothes while I go in rags, and that while I am weak from hunger he suffers not a little from overfeeding.

6. Periphery clauses.In complex sentences with mutually subordinated clauses it is impossible to state which of the clauses is the main one and which is subordinate. There are two patterns of such sentences. 1. Comparative clauses express a proportional relationship – proportionality or equivalence; the more intensive is the action or quality described in one clause, the more intensive becomes the other, described in the following clause. They are joined by the conjunction as (correlated with the adverb of degree so in the other clause); or by means of the correlative adverbs so...so in both clauses. Proportionate agreement between the clauses may also be expressed by the correlative particles (conjunctions) the...the, followed by the comparative degree of adverbs (or adjectives): As time went on, so my hopes to enter university began to wane. It is often given in the form of a following comparative clause introduced by as or than: Maybe Henry would realize she was not as nice as she pretended to be. (fict) She fled these Sunday afternoons earlier than she should have, and was punished by guilty dreams because of it. (fict) Ellipsis is frequent in the comparative clause, which usually mirrors the structure of the main clause. A related type of clause expresses result or consequences in relation to a preceding degree expression: so/such + that-clause: He awoke so cold that he could barely straighten his legs. (fict) The syntactic role of the degree expression varies; most typically it is a modifier of an adjective or adverb. 2. Mutually subordinated clauses which expresses temporal relations – a quick succession of actions or events, often overlapping with one another for a short period of time. These clauses form an indivisible whole owing to correlative elements no sooner ... than, scarcely ... when/before, hardly ... when and sometimes partial inversion in the first clause: The door had scarcely closed behind her before it opened again. Hardly have we got into the house, when it began to rain. He had just cut a slice of bread when he heard somebody's footsteps.

7. Reporting clauses.A reporting clause accompanies direct reports of somebody's speech or thought. It specifies the speaker/thinker, the addressee (sometimes), the type of act (ask, say, think, etc.), and frequently also the mode of the act (abruptly, apologetically, bitterly, etc.). The reporting clause may be placed in initial, medial, or final position:They said, "Yes, sir," and saluted. (fict)"Yes," thought Fleury, "she's going at it hammer and tongs for his benefit." (fict)"Please come too," she begged. - "I'll be back when I feel like it," he said(to her) without emotion. - "I'm sorry," she whimpered, (fict)Can we do some singing? he asks. (fict)"Of course, dear. Please do come over," she invited, (fict)Madonna, forgive me, he prayed, forgive me for doubting the Holy Father.(fict)It should be noted that the choice of verb varies from straightforward verbs of saying to verbs describing the form or function of the speech act. As shown in the first of these examples, the reporting clause may be coordinated with narrative text. As there is no link specifying the type of connection, the syntactic role of the reporting clause is indeterminate. The clause containing the reporting verb is often described as the main clause, with the direct speech in object position. This analysis is obviously excluded where the verb in the reporting clause does not normally take a direct object (verbs such as whimper, exult, smile). Note also the clear difference between indirect and direct speech:1. They said that everything was great.2. They said, "Everything is great." - "Everything," they said, "is great"- "Everything is mouldy," she said.In 1 there is indirect speech, with a subordinator introducing a regular nominal clause; the connection between the two clauses is close. In 2, this structure is paraphrased using direct speech. Note that the connection is much looser, as shown by the comma and the mobility of the reporting clause. The order of the subject and the verb phrase of reporting clauses may vary depending upon its position and internal structure.

8. Comment clauses.Comment clauses are similar in structure to reporting clauses: they are loosely connected to the main clause, they normally lack an explicit link, and they are usually short and can appear in a variety of positions. They differ from reporting clauses by being more formulaic, and in the frequency counts later in the book we therefore choose to regard some of them (notably you know and I mean) as inserts. They are also usually in the present rather than past tense, first or second rather than third person, and comment on a thought rather than the delivery of a wording:It's a good tip you know, isn't it? (conv)

It's a nice approach I think. (conv) You know it makes you wonder, you know, you see all this unemployment. (conv) I mean it's, it's general I suppose I mean if it would be better to switch it on and off which you can do and er, you know, I mean we can't sit here continually talking. (conv) Mind you, he was probably still as sound as a bell. (fict) The following exchange was overheard (I swear), by a reader from Quainton, Bucks, in his local pub. (news) The conclusion, it seems, is intolerable. (acad)

Many comment clauses directly express the speaker's or writer's attitude to the message and can therefore be grouped among stance adverbials. The syntactic role of comment clauses is indeterminate in much the same way as with reporting clauses. In medial and final position they are best described as peripheral elements. In initial position they may look superficially like main clauses with an embedded nominal clause. Compare: You know, there's no money to be made out of recycling. (conv) v.You know (that) there's no money to be made out of recycling. In the first example, the speaker tells the addressee something the latter perhaps does not know; the function of you know is to underline the truth of the statement. This is clearly a comment clause. The second example is ambiguous: it either means “you are aware that ..." or it is identical in meaning to the first example. The first interpretation corresponds to a structure with an embedded nominal clause (that can be inserted), the second to a structure with a comment clause (that cannot be used).Comment clauses are very characteristic of speech.

9. Other peripheral clauses. In addition to reporting clauses and comment clauses, we find two further types of loosely attached dependent clauses. They are typical of conversation.

Pseudo-complex sentences consist of two clauses joined according to some pattern of subordination, but different from other complex sentences in the relation the clauses bear to one another. There are several types of pseudo-complex sentences.

Emphatic or cleft sentences fall into three patterns, in all of which the form of the complex sentence is used to emphasize some part of the sentence. 1. In the first pattern the emphasized part is placed in the position of the predicative, which is followed by a clause. The main clause is patterned on the model of the if-clause and the subordinate clause may be patterned as an attributive, temporal, or nominal that-clause: It is my friend who told me the truth. It was the idea I borrowed, not the project. It was what she said that spoiled the impression. The subordinate clause may be joined asyndetically: It is not you I love. The role of the main clause is purely emphatic, as the information which is divided between the main and the subordinate clause can be expressed in the simple sentence: My friend told me this. I don't love you. Splitting into two clauses serves as a device for placing greater emphasis on the part occupying the position of the predicative. Pseudo-complex sentences of this type may be interrogative: What is it that happened to you? What was it he disliked so much? A sentence can be transformed into different cleft sentences depending on what element is to be emphasized. For example: John liked to read books at home. – It was John who liked to read books at home. It was books that John liked to read at home. It was at home that John liked to read books.

2. The second pattern of cleft sentences (called pseudo-cleft sentences) is used to emphasize the predicate, which is split into the operator in the subordinate subject clause and the infinitive in the main clause: What John liked was to read books at home. What he disliked so much was to be addressed by passers-by. What he has done is spoil the whole thing.

3. The third pattern of cleft sentences is used to emphasize the prepositional object. If I feel sympathy for anyone it's you.

There are several varieties of appended clauses, modelled on the pattern of the main clause. These are used to intensify or reinforce a statement in the previous clause. The most common type of appended clauses are tag questions (tags):You are not ill, are you?

In non-formal style there is another form of appended clause, which is elliptical: He is always very kind, is that friend of yours. The appended part may consist only of a nominal group: He is a clever girl, your friend July. Such cases should not be confused with appended clauses. Appended clauses are used for a) emphasis: Thai's just perfect, that is! b) correction: I object – we all do. c) explanation: She's had a hard life, has my grandmother. Like my cakes, kids do.

Absolute subordinate clauses are used absolutely as independent exclamatory sentences. They may have the form of a conditional or comparative clause. If only I knew his address! As though you didn't know!

Parenthetical/inserted clause interrupts another sentence with which it is either not connected syntactically or is only loosely connected with separate parts of the sentence. Parenthetical clauses are often called comment clauses, because they do not simply add to the information given in the sentence but comment on its truth, the manner of saying it, or express the attitude of the speaker toward it: There is, as it were, a barrier between my words and my deeds. My parents, you know, were teaches. He is, as I told you, their only son. Parenthetical clauses may occur in front, middle and end position, but the end position. They are usually marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas, dashes, or parentheses in written English and by a separate tone unit in speech. Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like independent sentences, coordinate, main, or subordinate clauses: Although the morning was still dark – we got up too early – the lights were off. She cooked – and she was a good cook – and chatted with the kids. As you put it, it sounds good. Does your suggestion to have tea (which I do want) mean that you are not going to leave me alone? Parenthetical clauses may be patterned like different communicative types of sentences or clauses – statements, questions, imperative or exclamatory sentences or clauses: It was – why hadn't I noticed it before? – beginning to be an effort for him to apologize. I felt – such awful shapes pride takes! – that people hated each other because of it. Quite a number of parenthetical clauses are stereotyped conversation formulas, used to attract the listener's attention or to show the reaction of the speaker: you know, you see, I see, as you know, what's more, etc.

Parenthetical clausesmay appear within another clause and interrupt its structure. A clause of this kind may either be asyndetic, or it may be introduced by a conjunction, most usually by the conjunction for. It usually contains some information serving to elucidate what is said in the main body of the sentence, or it may be a causal interruption due to the speaker suddenly thinking of something vaguely connected with what he is talking about, etc. There is certainly no reason for calling an inserted clause "subordinate", since no signs of subordination are to be found. Neither is there any valid reason for saying it is coordinate in the sense that clauses are co-ordinate within a compound sentence, indeed there are no clear signs which would prove that a sentence with an inserted clause is a composite sentence at all - though this of course depends on the exact interpretation is given to the notion of "composite sentence". Hence, a sentence with an inserted clause should not be taken as composite. It is rather a special type of a simple sentence with an inserted clause: The flowers were white and red, she recollected, roses, lilies, tulips and lots of orchids (Chavalier,87) Here the inserted clause contains information about the author of the statement, and in this respect it is akin to parenthetical clauses. However, in the following example, the inserted clause has nothing of a parenthesis about it: At last I decided to introduce Tom to my parents as my future husband (a few days ago he told me that he loved me and wanted to marry me) and to my friends who were looking forward to meet him. ( Chavalier,79) The inserted clause can be introduced by the conjunction for. It does not change the meaning essentially, but make it more explicit. As it can be seen, the boundary line between inserted clauses remaining outside the structure of the sentence proper.

10. Non-finite clauses. Non-finite clauses are regularly dependent. They are more compact and less explicit than finite clauses: they are not marked for tense and modality, and they frequently lack an explicit subject and subordinator. Compare the following examples to paraphrases using finite clauses: I don't know what to write about. (conv) I don't know what I should write about. Crossing, he lifted the rolled umbrella high and pointed to show cars, buses, speeding trucks, and cabs. (fict)

As he was crossing, he lifted the rolled umbrella high and pointed to show cars, buses, speeding trucks, and cabs. Style being a relational concept, the aim of literary stylistics is to be relational in a more interesting sense than that already mentioned. Since style is a relational concept, the aim of literary stylistics is to be relational in a more interesting sense than that which has already been mentioned. To interpret a non-finite clause, it is necessary to use clues from the main clause and often also from the wider context. There are three main types of non-finite clause, each containing a different type of verb phrase: infinitive clauses, ing-clauses, and ed-clauses. The three types differ considerably with respect to the grammatical roles they can play. Infinitive clauses and ing-clauses are the most versatile grammatically. Non-finite clauses are often loosely integrated into the main clause and may even lack a verb altogether.