Discuss with your classmates and check in the dictionary if all your translation guesses were correct

2. Write out all the new words with the translation into your copy-book and prepare them for the dictation.

3. Give synonyms to the column “A” from the column “B”.

“A” “B”

1. to design a. to take part

2. to launch b. to meet somebody

3. to participate c. to construct

4. to award d. to start

5. associate e. famous

6. outstanding f. colleague

7. to devote oneself to g. to reward

8. to get acquainted with h. to give oneself to

Speaking

1. The names of Tsiolkovsky and Korolyov are closely connected in the view of their mutual interests and inventions. Make an oral 3-minute report on the biography and captivating ideas of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.

UNIT 3

FROM THE HISTORY OF FLYING APPARATUS

Preparing to Read

1. Look through the pictures a-h very carefully. Do you know the names of each flying device? Name them. For the help look at the list, given below, but there are some extra models.

a) b)

c) d)

e) f)

g) h)

Flying boat, glider, biplane, kite, autogiro, balloon, airship, parachute, helicopter.

2. If you were a traveler and had at you disposal any passenger-carrying apparatus, by which one would you prefer to travel?

3. In groups of four, discuss pros and cons of the above apparatus. Provide reasoning. Use conventional formulae of agreement and disagreement. The verbs in the box might be helpful.

allow enable force may stop faster save

make it easier make it more difficult suffer from travel sickness

1. Answer the questions below.

1) How many meanings of the word balloon do you know?

2) Why were people, especially scientists interested in the composition of the atmosphere?

3) How do we call scientists studying the atmospheric phenomena?

4) Which countries are known to be the pioneers in early flights and atmosphere studies?

Reading

1. Read the text below. Think of a suitable title. Provide reasoning.

FROM THE HISTORY OF FLYING APPARATUS

The earliest form of air transport was balloons, which are sometimes called “free balloons” because they are forced to drift by the wind flow without any engine. This fact alone makes balloons not reliable enough for carrying people. If they were safer they would be used more for transportation, but at present the scientists use the balloons mostly for obtaining information about upper atmosphere, its density and other scientific subjects. Weather balloons are particularly used by meteorologists. They carry instruments whose readings are automatically sent back to the ground by the radio. The position of the balloon is obtained by radar.

The first balloons were done by Montgolfier brothers in the 18-th century.

Etienne and Joseph Montgolfier lived in a little village in France where their father had a paper factory. The two brothers took paper bags from their father, filled them with smoke over a fire and watched them go up into the air.

After numerous experiments they were ready to show how their balloons worked. On the day of the flight people from different places came to the little village to see the spectacle. The brothers had constructed a bag some thirty feet in diameter. That big bag was held over a fire. When it was in the air for ten minutes and then as the air bag became cold the balloon went down.

The news about the experiment reached the king who wanted to see it himself. So on September 19, 1783 Montgolfier brothers repeated their experiment in the presence of the King and Queen of France. This time the balloon carried a cage with a sheep, a cock and a duck who were thus the first air travellers. The flight was successful. The balloon came down some distance off with the sheep, the cock and the duck unharmed.

If the animals could live through this men could risk too. A month later a balloon was sent up with a Frenchman, Rozier by name. He stayed up in the air for twenty-five minutes at a height of about one hundred feet above the ground, and then came down saying that he had greatly enjoyed the view of the country.

A month later he and Arlandes made the first free balloon flight. Their friends who came to say good-bye to them were very sad as if the two men were going to certain death, but they went up several hundred feet, were carried by the wind over Paris and came down in safety.

In 1785 a Frenchman and an American crossed the English Channel in a balloon. When they had covered three quarters of the way the balloon began to go down. They threw everything they could overboard. If they had not done it, they would have never reached the French coast.

Comprehension Check

1. Check you knowledge on the history of the balloons. Do the following quiz and mark the statements as true (T) or false (F).

2. Compare your answers with those of your partner’s.

3. Define the main idea of the first paragraph. Find the supporting details that help to develop the main idea.

4. Explain the meaning of the following words and word combinations from the text. Make use of a dictionary if necessary.

Particularly, village, smoke, numerous experiments, in the presence of, traveler, cock, unharmed, at a height of, to come down in safety.

5. Complete the following sentences using the content of the text.

1) “Free balloons” are forced to drift by …

2) This fact alone makes the balloons not …

3) If they were safer they would …

4) They carry instruments whose readings are …

5) Etienne and Joseph Montgolfier lived in …

6) After numerous experiments they were ready to …

7) The brothers had constructed a bag …

8) The news about the experiment reached …

9) The next time the balloon carried a cage with …

10) If the animals could live through this …

11) He stayed up in the air for twenty-five minutes …

12) A month later he and Arlandes made …

Speaking

1. You are going on a balloon flight. Tell who and what you would like to take with you. Follow the plan.

1. Place of Destination

2. Approximate Flight Duration

3. Membership

4. Food

5. Clothes

6. Any other things

UNIT 4

TYPES OF AIRCRAFT

Preparing to read

1. Name the aircraft you know. Describe them. Try to group them according to their principle of flying.

2. Match the keywords with their translations.

1. seaplane a. воздушный винт

2. glider b. амфибия

3. airplane c. реактивный снаряд, ракета

4. helicopter d. гидросамолёт

5. autogiro e. силовая установка

6. missile f. планер

7. airscrew g. автожир

8. float h. вертолёт

9. amphibian i. поплавок

10. power plant j. самолёт

Reading

1. Read the text and check whether your predictions in ex. 2 were correct.

2. Read the text and name the vehicles not mentioned at the beginning of the unit.

3. Read the text and write out the words and word combinations you don’t know, try to guess their meaning from the context. Compare your notes with your partners.

TYPES OF AIRCRAFT

A. Modern heavier-than-air aircraft can be divided into two main classes according to the principle of flying: 1) aircraft flying due to aerodynamical action and 2) aircraft performing ballistic flight.

B. Aircraft of the first class are gliders, airplanes, helicopters, autogiros and winged missiles. Ballistic rockets belong to the second class.

C. Gliders have no power plant and are supported in the air by up and down air streams or air flows encountering the wing. The glider is lighter than the airplane and covers long distances with little loss of height. Thanks to them much of the early advance in aviation became possible. Now the gliders serve mostly for sport and training.

D. Airplanes are controllable machines and have engines which give power for forward motion. The lifting force of airplanes is created by the wing itself while it is propelled by the thrust produced by the airscrew or by a jet engine. The arrangement and number of the wings subdivide the airplanes into the classification as follows:

1) the biplane which is a two wing plane with an upper and lower of wings;

2) the monoplane which is an airplane with wings in one level.

These are divided into four general types according to the wing position:

a) the mid wing monoplane with the wing secured midway between the top and bottom of the fuselage;

b) the high wing monoplane having the wing attached to the top of the fuselage;

c) the low wing monoplane with the wing attached to the bottom of the fuselage;

d) the parasol wing monoplane having its wing placed a short distance above the
fuselage and attached to it by struts and braces.

E. Many airplanes are equipped to take off water and land on water. Such airplanes are called flying boats if the boat hull replaces the airplane fuselage, or seaplanes if floats take the place of wheels on a conventional land plane. If flying boats and seaplanes are also equipped with wheels for landing on the ground they are called amphibians.

F. At present VTOL and STOL aircraft are becoming popular but for vertical take-off it is necessary to produce the lift force exceeding the aircraft weight. The source of the lift is the energy developed by the propulsion system. The following methods of vertical take-off are suggested now:

a) the direct application of power plant thrust,

b) the application of lifting properties of airfoil.

G. The helicopter largely differs from the airplane. The main thing that distinguishes a helicopter from an airplane is that the necessary lift force for

helicopter is produced by a rotor instead of wings. The helicopter has a fuselage but there is no conventional propeller in the nose. Instead it has rotor blades on the top. The engine drives them. The power of a helicopter engine is transmitted to the rotor which produces the thrust for vertical take-off, hovering and forward propulsion. The helicopter is able to rise straight off the ground, fly forward, backward, sideward and descend vertically to the ground. Yet it has a few disadvantages. One of them is its inability to fly at high speed.

H. The autogiro is flying on the same principles, but the difference is that in addition to a rotor the autogiro has also a tractor airscrew. The power developed by the autogiro engine is transmitted to the airscrew while the rotor is freely revolving under the action of airflow, thus creating the lifting force.

I. Ballistic rockets (missiles) belong to the second class of aircraft. They do not require any lifting force produced by means of a wing. The rocket engine is to impart them the necessary energy for propulsion. The rocket engines are mostly operated on liquid or solid fuels.

Comprehension Check

1. Fill in the diagram with missing information from the text.

2. The text has 9 paragraphs. Which paragraph mentions a) different landing devices; b) vehicle flying due to up and down air streams; c) vehicle able to hover in the air?

3. Read the text again and decide if these statements are true or false. Correct the false ones.

1. Modern heavier-than-air aircraft are classified into two classes according to their flying principle.

2. Airplanes fly due to up and down air stream.

3. Gliders are equipped with airscrew and power plant.

4. Airplanes can be fitted with floats to take off and land on water.

5. In helicopters lifting force is produced by the wing itself.

6. The helicopters can take off and land vertically.

7. The autogiros and ballistic rockets fly on the same principles.

8. Ballistic rockets do not produce lifting force by means of a wing.

4. Ask your partner ten questions about types of aircraft.

5. Explain the difference between:

a) airplanes and ballistic rockets

b) helicopters and autogiros

c) seaplanes and amphibians

d) helicopters and airplanes

Vocabulary Focus

1. Match the synonyms.

A B

advance wing

produce mount

subdivide vehicle

propel progress

airfoil move

attach create

aircraft classify

2. Make up all possible combinations with the verbs.

To divide, to support, to produce, to propel, to attach, to place, to create, to equip, to differ, to require.

3. Make up 5 sentences with the word combinations from ex. 2.

4. Work in pairs. Give the definitions of the following words and expressions.

Fuselage, glider, biplane, helicopter, amphibian aircraft, ballistic rocket, high wing monoplane.

5. Fill in the gaps with the words & expressions from the box.

1. Gliders are supported in the air by________.

2. The lifting force of the wing is created by ______ when it moves through the air.

3. The monoplanes are divided into four types according to________ .

4. ________ monoplane has its wing placed a short distance above the fuselage.

5. In _______ the boat hull replaces the airplane fuselage.

6. ________ are equipped with floats to take off water and land on water.

7. The helicopters produce lifting force by______.

8. ________ is equipped with a tractor airscrew and a rotor.

9. The rocket engine provides energy for propulsion for________.

10. In airplanes _____ supply power for forward motion.

6. Give the English equivalents to the words in the brackets.

1. Modern (летательные аппараты тяжелее воздуха) are divided into two classes according to the principle of flying.

2. The (планер) is lighter than the airplane.

3. Many airplanes are equipped (взлетать) from water and (садиться) on water.

4. At present (ЛА с вертикальным взлётом-посадкой) and (ЛА с укороченным взлётом-посадкой) aircraft are becoming popular.

5. The helicopter has a (фюзеляж) but there is no (обычный винт).

6. Helicopters have a few (недостатки).

7. Ballistic rockets do not require any lifting force produced (при помощи)

a wing.

8. The power developed by the autogiro (двигатель) is (передавать) to the (воздушный винт).

Writing

1. Translate the text in a written form.

A "glider" is an unpowered aircraft. The most common types of glider are today used for sporting purposes. The design of these types enables them to climb using rising air. This has created the sport of gliding. Although many gliders do not have engines, there are some that use engines occasionally.

Early gliders had no cockpit and the pilot sat on a small seat located just ahead of the wing. They were usually launched from the tops of hills, though they are also capable of short hops across the ground while being towed behind a vehicle. To enable gliders to soar more effectively, the designers minimized drag. Gliders now have very smooth, narrow fuselages and very long, narrow wings with a high aspect ratio.

The early gliders were made mainly of wood with metal fastenings, struts and control cables. New materials such as carbon-fiber, glass-fiber and Kevlar have since been used with computer-aided design to increase performance. Drag has also been minimized by more aerodynamic shapes and retractable undercarriages.

With each generation of materials and with the improvements in aerodynamics, the performance of gliders has increased. One measure of performance is the glide ratio. A ratio of 30:1 means that in smooth air a glider can travel forward 30 meters while only losing 1 meter of altitude.

Due to the critical role that aerodynamic efficiency plays in the performance of a glider, gliders often have state-of-the-art aerodynamic features. The wings of a modern glider have specially designed low-drag airfoil. After the wings' surfaces have been shaped by a mold to great accuracy, they are then highly polished. Vertical winglets at the ends of the wings are computer-designed to decrease drag and improve handling performance. Turbulator devices in the form of a zig-zag tape are used to direct laminar flow air into turbulent flow at a desired location on the wing. This flow control prevents the formation of laminar flow bubbles and ensures the absolute minimum drag. Bug-wipers may be installed to wipe the wings while in flight and remove insects that are disturbing the smooth flow of air over the wing.

Modern competition gliders are also designed to carry jettisonable water ballast (in the wings and sometimes in the vertical stabiliser). The extra weight provided by the water ballast is advantageous if the lift is likely to be strong, and may also be used to adjust the glider's center of mass. To avoid undue stress on the airframe, gliders must jettison any water ballast before landing.

Pilots can land accurately by controlling their rate of descent using spoilers, also known as air brakes. These are metal devices which extend from either the upper-wing surface or from both upper and lower surfaces, thereby destroying some lift and creating additional drag. A wheel-brake also enables a glider to be stopped after touchdown, which is particularly important in a short runway.

UNIT 5

AIRPLANE COMPONENTS

Preparing to Read

1. Airplanes have many applications in a variety of fields. Brainstorm as many uses of the airplane as possible.

2. Look at the picture of an airplane. Name the airplane components you know, share the terms with your partner.

Reading

1. Read the text and try to guess the meaning of underlined words from the content of the text.

AIRPLANE COMPONENTS

A. The airplane consists of six principal structural units, namely, the power plant, the fuselage, the wing, the tail unit (or empennage), flight controls and the landing gear

( undercarriage ).

B. The power plant is a source of power. It provides power and propels the airplane. Nowadays there are many types of aircraftengines. These engines have one thing in common. The energy is derived from a chemical reaction which takes place inside the engine itself. Nacelles are compartments housing the power plant or engine and its accessories. The engine is really the heart of the airplane.

C. The fuselage is the main body of the airplane which is divided into some cabins (compartments). A nose cabin is a pilot’s cabin (cockpit). The cockpit houses the crew, the flight controls and flight instrument panels. The next section of the fuselage is a wing centre-section. Passenger compartments are situated there. The rear part of the fuselage is designed for cargo rooms and for mounting a tail unit on it.

D. The wing is the main lifting surface of sweptback shape. Its function is to support the aircraft in flight producing lifting force. There may be different arrangement, shapes and number of the wings. At the trailing edge of the wing there are movable parts which are called ailerons, flaps and trimmer tabs (trimmers).

E. The tail unit (empennage) provides the necessary stability and consists of vertical and horizontal control surfaces. The vertical plane is called a fin. It has a movable part – a rudder. The horizontal plane is a stabilizer. The movable part at the trailing edge of the stabilizer is an elevator.

F. Three basic flight control surfaces are the ailerons, the elevators, and the rudder. They are hinged so to move and thus to deflect the air stream passing over there. The ailerons are located at the trailing edge and near the tips of the wings. They control the motion of the plane about the longitudinal axis. The elevators are hinged to the horizontal stabilizers and control the airplane's movement up and down about the lateral axis. The rudder is hinged to the vertical stabilizer (fin), and it controls the movement of the airplane around the vertical axis.

J. The landing gear (undercarriage) carries the wheels on which the aircraft moves on the ground. Struts attach it to the fuselage. Two different arrangements of landing wheels are in use today. They are conventional tricycle gears and the landing gear with a skid. The landing gear may be retractable and non-retractable.

Comprehension Check

1. You have read the text. Fill in the picture with missing terms from the text.

2. Complete the table according to the content of the text.

3. Read the sentences and decide if they are true (T) or false (F). Correct the false ones.

1. Power plant produces lifting force.

2. The rear part of the fuselage is designed for the cockpit.

3. The landing gear is designed to assist the airplane maneuvering on the ground.

4. Ailerons, flaps and trimmers are located at the trailing edge of the wing.

5. Flight controls produce additional lifting force.

6. Empennage is mounted on the wing centre-section.

4. Answer the following questions:

1. What units does the airplane consist of?

2. The power plant is a source of power, isn’t it?

3. What does the cockpit house?

4. Is the function of the wing to support the aircraft in flight?

5. Where are movable parts of the wing located? Name them.

6. Does the tail unit consist of a vertical stabilizer and rudder and horizontal stabilizer and elevators?

7. What components are responsible for airplane motion? Where are they located?

8. What is the function of the landing gear?

Vocabulary Focus

1. Match the words from A and B. Make as many combinations as possible.

A B

Horizontal Edge

Lifting Compartment

Passenger Surface

Sweptback Unit

Trailing Shape

Movable Plant

Structural Part

Power Stabilizer

2. Find the words in the text that mean:

air flow (F); engine (B); surface (E); to locate (C); to hinge (J); energy (B); usual (J); form (D); compartment (C); wing (D).

3. Translate the words in brackets:

a) into Russian:

1. Силовая установка (provides) энергией.

2. (Nacelles) – это отсеки, вмещающие двигатель и его вспомогательные элементы.

3. Фюзеляж (contains) кабину пилота, пассажирский и багажный отсеки.

4. На задней кромке крыла располагаются (ailerons, flaps) и триммеры.

b) into English:

1. (Руль направления) is hinged to the vertical stabilizer.

2. The main landing gear (прикрепляются) by struts to the fuselage.

3. The wings are the main (подъёмные плоскости).

4. There are conventional (трёхопорное шасси) and the landing gear with a (хвостовой опорой).

Focus on Writing

1. Match the beginnings and the endings of the sentences:

1. The power plant provides power and a. cargo rooms and for mounting

a tail unit on it.

2. The ailerons are located at the b. the movement of the airplane

trailing edge of the wing and around the vertical axis.

3. The main function of the wing is c. propels the airplane.

4. The energy is derived from a d. to support the aircraft in flight.

chemical reaction which

5. The rudder is hinged to the fin e. takes place inside the engine

and it controls itself.

6. The rear part of the fuselage is f. control the motion of the airplane

designed for…. about the longitudinal axis.

Speaking

1. You know that the history of aircraft designing was very long and designers constructed amazing flying machines. Prepare a report about one of them to your group mates.

UNIT 6

Aircraft and Some Facts about the Flight

Preparing to Read

1. Look at the picture. What do you think this picture shows? Share your ideas with your partner.

2. Try to answer the following questions before you read the text.

1. What does the flight of every aircraft depend on?

2. What are the main forces acting on a flying body?

Reading

1. Read the text and match the English word combinations with their Russian counterparts.

1. straight-and-level-flight a. различие в подъёмной силе и весе

2. right angle b. сжатый воздух

3. enter a climb c. подъём и снижение

4. inequality of lift and weight d. прямой угол

5. compressed air e. прямолинейный горизонтальный полёт

6. air resistance f. изогнутая поверхность

7. climb and descent g. начать набор высоты

8. inherent ability h. сопротивление воздуха

9. curved surface i. искусственно созданные силы

10. artificially created forces j. присущая способность

2. Read the text and check whether your answers were correct.

3. Read the text and write out the words you don’t know, try to guess their meaning from the context. Compare your notes with your partners.

Aircraft and some facts about the flight

A. The aircraft is able to rise into the air and to keep in the air because of the forces working on it. The motion itself maintains those forces.

B. When moving in the air, the aircraft produces an upward force which is called lift and acts at right angle to the direction of the air stream. When moving the leading edge of the wing pushes the air out of the way. Part of this air flows rapidly over the wing and part of it flows under the wing, both parts joining behind the trailing edge. The important thing is that due to the curved upper surface the air flowing over the wing travels faster than the air flowing under the more or less flat bottom surface. The air traveling across the top of the wing creates a reduced pressure on the upper surface. The air traveling along the bottom of the airfoil is slightly compressed and develops increased pressure. The difference in pressure between the air on the upper and lower surfaces of the wing produces lift.

C. To produce lift, the airplane wing must move through the air at high speed. This high speed is produced by a force of thrust which is acting in the direction of the airplane’s motion. Both a propeller and a jet engine produce thrust.

D. Drag is the resistance an airplane meets in moving through the air. The faster the airplane moves, the greater will be the drag.

E. In any position of flight the airplane is acted upon by four forces, the last being weight, or gravity, the downward acting force.

F. Lift opposes weight and thrust opposes drag. Drag and weight are forces inherent in anything lifted from the earth and moved through the air. Thrust and lift are artificially created forces used to overcome the forces of nature and enable an airplane to fly. The engine-propeller combination is designed to produce thrust to overcome drag. The wing is designed to produce lift to overcome weight.

G. In straight-and-level unaccelerated flight, lift equals weight and thrust equals drag. Any inequality between lift and weight will result in the airplane entering a climb or descent. Any inequality between thrust and drag while maintaining straight-and- level flight will result in acceleration or deceleration until the two forces become balanced.

H. The lifting power and the drag of a wing depend on the angle of attack, the shape and the size of the wing, density of the air and the speed of the flight.

Comprehension Check

1. Divide the text into logical parts. Think of the subtitle to each part. Highlight the key words of each part.

2. In the text find the definition of lifting force and air resistance.

3. Complete the following sentences with suitable words from the text:

1. The aircraft is able to keep in the air because of …….

2. It produces an upward force which ……

3. Part of the air flows over the wing and …

4. The air flowing under the bottom of the wing travels …..

5. The air moving across the top of the wing creates …

6. The difference in pressure between ….

7. To produce lift the wing must ….

8. A force of thrust acts ……

9. The resistance the aeroplane meets …

10. The aeroplane is acted upon by …

11. Drag and weight are forces ….

12. Thrust and lift are …..

13. Thrust is produced by ….

14. Inequality between lift and weight results in ….

15. Inequality between thrust and drag results in …..

4. These are the definitions. Guess the terms.

1. The force that acts on the airplane wing in a direction perpendicular to the air stream.

2. The resistance the airplane meets in moving through the air.

3. A force producing a high speed of the airplane.

4. A force with which a body tends toward the centre of the Earth.

5. Blades fixed to a revolving shaft for driving an aircraft.

6. A device which is capable of producing lift when it is moved through the air.

5. Agree or disagree with the statements. Use conventional formulae of agreement and disagreement.

Agreeing Disagreeing

- Absolutely! - I don’t agree.

- You are right. – I don’t think so.

- That’s true. – I’m not sure …

- I quite agree. – I wouldn’t say that.

1. The distance along the bottom of the wing is greater than the distance over the top of it.

2. The air flowing over the top travels faster than the air flowing along the bottom of the wing.

3. The faster a gas flows, the more pressure it creates.

4. The pressure of the faster-flowing air on the bottom of the wing is less than that of the slower-moving air on the top.

5. The increased pressure differential results in greater lift and thrust.

6. The thrust and drag depend on the angle of attack.

7. When thrust becomes more than drag, the airspeed decreases rapidly.

8. The thrust pushes the plane forward overcoming the resistance of the air against the plane.

9. The lift of an airplane acts vertically upwards and its weight – vertically downwards.

10. The lift being equal to the weight, the airplane climbs; if the two forces are unequal the plane descends.

6. Answer the questions.

1. Why is the plane able to fly in the air?

2. What are the forces acting on it?

3. What happens in the air when an airfoil moves through it?

4. How does the air flow over and under the wing?

5. What does the air stream create on the top and bottom of the wing?

6. What does the pressure differential results in?

7. What condition is necessary for producing lift?

8. How may thrust be created?

9. What is the drag?

10. How do the four forces act? What is their nature?

11. What are the means of producing lift and thrust?

12. What does the straight-and-level flight mean?

13. What do the lift and drag depend on?

Vocabulary Focus

1. Match the word in column A with the word in column B having a similar meaning. Be careful, there are some extra words in column B.

A B

stream decrease

travel rear

airfoil support

join not curved

produce move

straight flow

maintain operate

act create

reduce connect

artificial aerodynamic surface

trailing man-made

leading

increase

2. Match the antonyms.

A B

lift weight

thrust slow

climb backward

bottom rear

flat natural

upper drag

fast upward

artificial descent

forward lower

front curved

downward top

3. Choose the best alternative to fill the gaps in these sentences.

1. The aircraft rises into the air and keeps there because of ______.

a) wind b) light weight c) forces working on it

2. The air traveling across the top of the wing creates a _______ on the upper surface.

a) increased pressure b) reduced pressure c) reduced lift

3. Aircraft high speed is produced by a _______ that acts in the direction of airplane’s motion.

a) force of thrust b) wing c) flight controls

4. _____ and _____ are artificially created forces.

a) lift, drag b) thrust, lift c) thrust, gravity

5) The engine-propeller combination is designed ______ .

a) to create lift b) to overcome drag c) to decrease weight

Focus on Writing

1. Translate the text in a written form.

High-Speed Flight Ranges

Transonic. When the speed of flight is less than the speed of sound the airplane is said to be in the transonic speed range. That is, it is in the region of speed of sound.

Supersonic. As flight speed increases further, a point is reached where the airflow over all parts of the aircraft is supersonic, or above the speed of sound. When this happens, the airplane is in the supersonic speed range.

Hypersonic. As a body moves through the air at high speeds, a short amount of time is required for the molecules of air to adjust themselves to the presence of the fast-moving body and to readjust themselves after the body has passed through them. This period of adjustment and readjustment is called the relaxation time. If a body is moving at a speed greater that the relaxation time, it can be classed as being in the hypersonic speed range.

UNIT 7

Wing

Preparing to Read

1. Brainstorm all possible terms related to the topic.

2. Before you read the text name the main functions of the wing, try to describe wing structure. Share your ideas with your group mates.

Reading

1. Read the text and write a brief heading for each paragraph.

2. Read the text and write out the underlined words. Try to guess their meaning from the context. Compare your notes with your partners.

Wing

A. The main lifting surfaces of every airplane are wings. The wings are light structures which extend out on each side of the body. Their function is to push downward on the air as the machine moves through it. This push or lift of the wings is the secret of the support of the airplane in the air.

B. The wing is divided into three sections: a wing root, an inter-mediate section and a wing tip. The front edge of the wing is called the leading edge and the rear one is called the trailing edge. There are some movable parts on the trailing edge of the wing. These are ailerons, flaps and trimmer tabs.

C. The primary function of the wing is to produce lift (lifting force) for flying. The secondary function is to house many vital parts of the aircraft, such as fuel tanks, control mechanism and very often the engines and landing gear bay are arranged in the wing structure.

D. The distance from the wing tip on one side to the wing tip on the other side is called the span and the distance from the leading edge of the wing to the trailing edge is the chord.

E. The shape of the wing is of great importance for an aircraft. There are different configurations of the wing. There are rectangular and elliptical wings, wings of trapezoidal form, straight, sweptback and sweptforward wings. There is also a delta wing form.

F. The wing structure consists of longitudinal structural members - spars, stringers and beams and of transverse elements — ribs. The wing structure is covered with skin (or covering). According to the position in which the wing of a monoplane is fixed in relation to the fuselage the aircraft is called a low-wing monoplane, a mid-wing monoplane and a high-wing monoplane.

G. The aerodynamic loads on the wing produce bending, shear and torsion. A typical construction of a wing must resist these loads and usually consists of a thin sheet metal shell of airfoil shape, reinforced within by spanwise stiffeners and transverse ribs. Every component of an airplane must be so designed that it could carry its intended function.

H. Light weight is very important in an airplane structure because every pound of structural weight replaces a pound of payload. The wing structure is no exception in this respect. The stressed skin type of construction was adopted because it can be made light.

Comprehension Check

1. Define the main idea of paragraph H. Find the supporting details that help to develop the main idea.

2. Complete the sentences with the best options.

1. There are some movable parts on the ______ of the wing.

a) leading edge b) trailing edge c) centre-section

2. The ______ structural members of the wing are spars, stringers and beams.

a) transverse b) covering c) longitudinal

3. The _______ the wing produce bending, shear and torsion.

a) weight of b) aerodynamic loads on c) structure of

4. Every pound of wing structural weight replaces a pound of _____ .

a) payload b) power c) lifting force

5. The distance between wing tips is called the _____.

a) chord b) beam c) span

3. Match the terms with their definitions.

1. In this type of construction the skin a. span

of the aircraft carries structural loads.

2. This component of the airplane b. skin

produces lifting force for flying.

3. They are the longitudinal members c. stressed skin

of the wing structure.

4. The distance between the d. chord

wing tips.

5. It covers the wing structure. e. wing

6. It is a transverse element of f. spar, stringer and beam

the wing structure.

7. Distance from the leading to g. rib

the trailing edge of the wing.

4. Read the text again and decide if these statements are true or false.

1. There are two main functions of the wing – to produce lift and to house

many vital parts of the aircraft.

2. Movable parts of the wing are located on the leading edge.

3. Span - it is a distance between the wing tips.

4. Light weight is of no importance in an airplane structure.

5. Ribs are longitudinal members of the wing structure.

6. Spars, stringers and beams are spanwise stiffeners of the wing structure.

7. Skin is the covering of the wing structure and it can carry structural loads.

5. These are the answers. What are the questions?

1. – the wings.

2. – a wing root, an intermediate section and the wing tip.

3. – on the trailing edge.

4. – chord.

5. – longitudinal and transverse elements.

Vocabulary Focus

1. Match the synonyms.

A B

Wing Rear edge

Front edge Bay

Shape Engine

Covering Airfoil

Section Form

Trailing edge Skin

Power plant Leading edge

2. Match the antonyms.

A B

Leading Secondary

Take off Fixed

Primary Weaken

Root Trailing

Different Landing

Reinforce Tip

Transverse Similar

Movable Longitudinal

3. Give the English equivalents to the words in the brackets.

1. Rib is a ( поперечный) element of a wing structure.

2. The main longitudinal structural members of the wing structure are –

( лонжероны, стрингеры и балки).

3. A typical construction of the wing must resist ( изгибу, сдвигу и кручению).

4. (Топливные баки), control mechanisms and very often (двигатели) and landing gear (отсеки) are arranged in the wing structure.

4. Translate into English the following words and word combinations.

Работающая обшивка, гондола шасси, низкоплан, среднеплан, высокоплан, изгибающая нагрузка, корневая часть крыла, закрылок, отсек шасси, механизм управления, продольный элемент жёсткости, форма крыла, напряжение.

5. Use the prepositions in the box to complete the sentences.

1. The wing is divided ______ three sections

2. There are some movable parts ____ the trailing edge of the wing.

3. Fuel tanks, control mechanisms and very often engines and landing gear bays are arranged ___ the wing structure.

4. The distance ____ the leading edge of the wing ___ the trailing edge is the chord.

5. The wing structure is covered _____ skin.

6. The wing structure consists ___ longitudinal and transverse elements.

Writing

1. Look at the picture and predict what kind of aircraft it is. Explain why you think so.

2. Translate the text in a written form.

Flying wing is the generic designation given for a fixed-wing aircraft configuration which is capable of stable, controllable flight without the aid of lifting surfaces other than the main wing itself, that is, without auxiliary surfaces such as "tails" and "canards".

In it strictest sense, the Flying Wing also lacks a fuselage, or has only a rudimentary fuselage 'pod' barely extending from the wing itself. In this layout, most of the payload is transported inside the main wing, the latter comprising most of its structural volume. A pure flying wing also lacks any vertical stabilizers, although some aircraft commonly known as 'flying wings' have a vertical tail fin, vertical tail surfaces or a set of vertical stabilizers on the back part of their wings to help their stability in turns.

The less restrictive designation of "tailless aircraft" includes the flying wing aircraft, but also all aircraft without stabilizers or canards, but with a full-length payload bearing fuselage, such as delta aircraft.

Historically, the flying wing has been defended by many as potentially the most efficient aircraft configuration from the point of view of aerodynamics and structural weight. Such a notion usually comes from the idea that the absence of any aircraft components other than the wing should naturally provide those benefits. On the other hand, the aircraft's wing should be able to provide flight stability and control "by itself", a requirement which in principle imposes additional constraints to the wing design problem. Therefore, the expected gains in weight and drag reduction may be partially or wholly negated due to design compromises needed to provide stability and control.

Speaking

1. Analyse conventional wing and flying wing. Compare them. Highlight their similarity and difference. Make a report to your group mates. The following expressions might be helpful:

· The object of this report is …

· First of all I would like to ….

· It should be stressed …

· In comparison with ….

· Summimg up, I would like to …

UNIT 8

Tail Group

1. Look at these pictures. These are the types of tail group. Try to predict what types of aircraft they belong to. Share your ideas with your partners.

2. Before you read the text answer the following questions:

1. What are the movable parts of the tail unit intended for?

2. Is there any difference between the tail groups of civil and military aircraft?

Reading

1. Read the text and match the English words with their Russian counterparts.

1. elevator a. руль направления

2. fin b. площадь компенсатора

3. rudder c. руль высоты

4. tail plane d. форкиль

5. attitude e. киль

6. dorsal fin f. пространственное положение

7. precaution g. стабилизатор

8. balance area h. предосторожность

THE TAIL GROUP

A. In order to provide the necessary stability airplanes are fit­ted with a tail unit (a tail group, empennage) which usually consists of the horisontal tail surfaces — stabiliser and elevators and the verti­cal surfaces — fin and rudder. The stabilizer and the fin are fix­ed portions, the elevator and the rudder are movable.

B. A movable control surface called an elevator is hinged to the rear of the tail plane. It is intended to control the altitude of the aircraft in flight. It can be deflected upwards or downwards. Moving up the elevator reduces its angle of attack and creates a down load on the tail which raises the nose of the aircraft.

C. In order to secure directional stability the fin is used which is the vertical fixed control surface at the rear of the fuselage. The action of the vertical surface is quite clear. Since it has agreat lever arm from the airplane's centre of gravity the vertical surface is able to stabilize the directional motion of the plane. Directional control of the airplane is achieved by means of the rudder, which is a movable vertical surface hinged to the rear of the fin. It can be moved to right or left or retained in the neutral position in line with the fin.

D. When the pilot needs to change his flight direction towards the right (or starboard) he moves the rudder to the right. The reaction of the stream on the surface produces a couple about the centre of gravity and the nose of the aircraft is turned to star­board. If it is necessary for the pilot to control the altitude of the aircraft and cause the nose to rise or fall this is done by means of the elevator.

E. In addition to the principal control surfaces there are some auxiliary ones such as trimming tabs (trimmers) which represent small adjustable areas arranged near the trailing edges of the movable surfaces. They are used to produce constant control de­flections to hold the airplane in a certain attitude of flight. They are adjustable from the cockpit.

F. There is also a dorsal fin placed along the upper side of the aft portion of the fuselage body.

G. On large fast airplanes it is usually necessary to provide the movable surfaces with some area called balance area. It re­duces the hinge moment needed to deflect the surface. This is often required because the hinge moment increases with size and speed. This dynamic balancing is one of the precautions taken to avoid flutter, a violent vibration of a wing or control surface.

H. The structure of the tail plane as well as that of a wing consists of longitudinal and transverse structural elements called spars and ribs.

Comprehension Check

1. Match the given titles with the corresponding paragraphs. Watch out! There is an extra title.

1. balance area

2. tail unit arrangement

3. tail unit function

4. tail plane structure

5. elevator

6. dorsal fin

7. rudder

8. lifting force

9. trimmers

2. Guess what it is:

1) This component of the aircraft provides the necessary stability.

2) The structure of the tail plane consists of these members.

3) It is used in the tail group to avoid flutter and violent vibration.

4) They are arranged near the trailing edges of the movable surfaces.

5) When the pilot needs to change the flight direction he moves it to the right or left.

6) It is a vertical fixed surface of the tail unit.

7) It is used to produce constant control deflections.

8) This part is to stabilize the directional motion of the airplane.

9) It is a horizontal movable plane. It can be deflected upwards and downwards.

10) This part of the tail group is placed along the upper side of the aft portion of the fuselage body.

11) These portions are used when the pilot is to cause the nose to rise or to fall.

12) This is used to reduce the hinge moment which increases with size and speed.

3. In the text find the definition of flutter.

4. Fill in the gaps using the following words from the box.

1. Tail unit provides the necessary ______ of an airplane.

2. An elevator is ______ to the ______ of the tail plane.

3. Elevators control the ______ of the aircraft in flight.

4. _____ can be deflected to the right or to the left.

5. Trimmers are _____ surfaces arranged near the ______ of the movable surfaces.

6. To avoid flutter ______ is used.

5. Work in pairs. Make up 5 ”False” and 5 “True” statements and tell them your partner. “False” statements should be corrected.

6. Ask your group mates ten questions concerning the tail unit.

Vocabulary Focus

1. a) Check if you know the meaning of the following verbs.

To provide, to consist, to intend, to arrange, to hold, to control, to deflect, to reduce, to secure, to fit with.

b) Find these words in the text and write out the words collocate with.

c) Think of other nouns they can go with.

d) Give synonyms of the verbs from a).

2. In the text find the antonyms of the following words and make up your own word combinations with them.

Fixed, to increase, main, to promote, irregular, weak.

3. Translate from English into Russian.

Оснащать хвостовым оперением, отклонять вверх или вниз, достигается посредством руля высоты, вспомогательная плоскость, шарнирный момент, избегать флаттера, правый борт ЛА, положение самолёта в воздухе.

4. Use the prepositions in the box to complete the sentences.

1. Trimmers are used to produce constant control deflections to hold the airplane ____ a certain attitude ____ flight.

2. The dorsal fin is placed ____ the upper side ___ the fuselage body.

3. In order to provide the necessary stability airplanes are fitted ____ a tail unit.

4. Fin is a vertical control surface __ the rear of the fuselage.

5. Trimmers are adjustable ___ the cockpit.

Writing

1. Match the beginnings and the endings of the sentences.

1. In order to provide the necessary a) along the upper side of the aft

stability … portion of the fuselage body.

2. The dynamic balancing is one b) he moves the rudder to the right.

of the precautions taken….

3. Directional control of the airplane c) to produce constant control

is achieved …. deflections.

4. The structure of the tail unit d) airplanes are fitted with a tail unit.

consists of …

5. A movable control surface e) this is done by means of the

called an elevator is … elevator.

6. When the pilot needs to change f) to avoid flutter, a violent vibration

his flight direction to the right… of a wing or control surface.

7. Dorsal fin is placed … g) by means of the rudder, which is

a movable vertical surface.

8. Balance areas reduce the hinge h) to right or left or retained in the neutral

moment ….. position in line with the fin.

9. Trimmers represent small adjustable i) hinged to the rear of the stabilizer.

areas arranged …

10. If the pilot needs to cause the nose j) needed to deflect surface.

to rise or fall ….

11. Trimmers are used …. k) longitudinal and transverse structural

elements called spars and ribs.

12. Rudder is hinged to the rear of l) near the trailing edges of the movable

the fin and can be moved … surfaces.

2. Translate in a written form matching with the picture.

In aircraft, a V-tail (sometimes called a "butterfly tail") is an unconventional arrangement of the tail control surfaces that replaces the traditional fin and horizontal surfaces with two surfaces set in a V-shaped configuration when viewed from the front or rear of the aircraft. The rear of each surface is hinged, and these movable sections combine the tasks of the elevators and rudder. The V-tail has not been a popular choice for aircraft manufacturers.

With fewer surfaces than a conventional tail, the V-tail is lighter and produces less drag. The air flowing over the tail surfaces is also likely to be less turbulent. A V-tail tends to reflect radar at an angle that reduces the return signal, making the aircraft harder to detect. This is an advantage for military aircraft.

Combining the pitch and yaw controls is difficult and requires a more complex control system. The V-tail arrangement also places greater stress on the rear fuselage when pitching and yawing.

In aircraft a T-tail is an arrangement of the tail control surfaces with the horizontal surfaces (tailplane and elevators) mounted to the top of the fin, rather than the more common location on the fuselage at the base of the fin. The resulting arrangement looks like a T when viewed from the front or back.

There are pros and cons to this arrangement.

The tailplane surfaces are kept well out of the airflow behind the wing, giving smoother flow, more predictable design characteristics.

The effective distance between wing and tailplane can be increased without a significant increase in the weight of the aircraft.

The tail surfaces are mounted well out of the way of the rear fuselage, permitting this site to be used for the aircraft's engines. This is why the T-tail arrangement is also commonly found on airliners with rear-mounted engines.

The fin must be made considerably stronger and stiffer to support the forces generated by the tailplane. Unless expensive composite materials are used, this inevitably makes it heavier as well.

Speaking

1. Work in groups. You are involved in developing of a new airplane. You are responsible for the tail group. Find out some additional information for your topic.

UNIT 9

The Fuselage Structure

Pre-Reading

1. Brainstorm all possible terms related to the topic.

2. Before you read the text, read the statements and agree or disagree with them and explain your viewpoint.

1. The fuselage is designed for housing passengers, equipment and cargo.

2. Fuselage structure is a monolithic structure made of aluminium alloy.

3. Composite materials are widely used in modern aircraft.

Reading

1. Read the text and make a list of unfamiliar words. Compare them with your partner. In pairs try to guess the meaning of these words.

The Fuselage Structure

A. The fuselage is the main body of the aircraft. It usually serves the purposes of housing the crew, passengers and payload and of connecting the wing and the tail group. It may also carry fuel and support the engines and the landing gear. Its structure is called upon to carry bending, shear and torsion loads due to all these functions.

B. The usual constructions of a fuselage consist of longitudinal members (longerons), transverse rings (frames) and covering skin. The designer’s problem is complicated by the presence of doors, windows, wheel wells, bomb bays, etc.

C. A fuselage construction may be broken down into two main classes: the truss type consists of a welded tubular structure covered with skin and a girder type. The latter is divided into the monocoque type consisting of a strong outer skin from which the fuselage primarily derives its strength, and the semimonocoque type – the combination of a single shell structure with longerons and stringers to reinforce the skin.

D. A very common type of a fuselage is the monocoque type of construction. It is called so because it makes use of a single shell which is sufficient to provide the necessary structural strength. Monocoque construction aims at concentrating the structural material towards the outer surfaces and the success of stressed-skin fuselage depends upon the stiffness of the skin.

E. The semimonocoque type is the most popular fuselage construction. It presents the same outside appearance but instead of relying entirely on the skin for stre

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