Стилистические средства английского языка и их использование

Языковая выразительность высказываний создается не только за счет экспрессивно-стилистического и оценочно-стилистического компонентов значения, но и за счет того, что слова и их сочетания могут приобретать переносные значения, т.е. становиться тропами, или входить в состав стилистических фигур, которые создают образный смысл.

Стилистика изучает взаимодействие прямых и переносных значений слов при создании художественных образов. Их создают специально оформленные фигуры речи, которые имеют стилистическую окраску и называются тропами. В основе тропа лежит перенос традиционного наименования в иную предметную область. Роль тропов в создании языковой образности велика.
Это лексические изобразительно-выразительные средства, в которых слово или словосочетание употребляется в переносном значении. Суть тропов состоит в сопоставлении понятия, представленного в традиционном употреблении лексической единицы, и понятия, передаваемого этой же единицей в художественной речи при выполнении специальной стилистической функции.

Важнейшими тропами являются:

1. аллегория - выражение отвлеченной идеи в развернутом художественном образе с развитием ситуации и сюжета,

2. антономазия - метафорическое применение имени собственного. From the Greek, "instead of" plus "name" Calling a lover "Casanova," an office worker "Dilbert," Elvis Presley "the King," Bill Clinton "the Comeback Kid," or Horace Rumpole's wife "She Who Must Be Obeyed". "When I eventually met Mr. Right I had no idea that his first name was Always."

3.анафора – повторение:We shall go on to the end, we shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our Island, whatever the cost may be. "I want her to live. I want her to breathe. I want her to aerobicize." \\ "Of all the gin joints in all the towns in all the world, she walks into mine."

4.ALLITERATION: повторение звуков:From the Latin, "putting letters together":"You'll never put a better bit of butter on your knife."
(advertising slogan for Country Life butter. "The soul selects her own society."
(Emily Dickinson)"Forget the most obvious problem with collegiate calorie counting, that studying Kierkegaard or Conrad after a dinner of seitan and soy chips would render even robust stomachs seasick, sometimes outright ill. And I won’t harp on the clear link between vigorous salad consumption and sulkiness."
(Marisha Pessl, "Seize the Weight," The New York Times, Oct. 6, 2006)

5.ANTITEZA: противопоставление:From the Greek, "opposition":"Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing." (Goethe)"Hillary has soldiered on, damned if she does, damned if she doesn't, like most powerful women, expected to be tough as nails and warm as toast at the same time." (Anna Quindlen, "Say Goodbye to the Virago," Newsweek, June 16, 2003)"It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way." (Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities)

6. Apostrophe Breaking off discourse to address some absent person or thing, some abstract quality, an inanimate object, or a nonexistent character. From the Greek, "turning away" \\ "O western wind, when wilt thou blow
That the small rain down can rain?" (anonymous, 16th c.) "Hello darkness, my old friend I've come to talk with you again . . .." (Paul Simon, "The Sounds of Silence") \\ "Bright star, would I were steadfast as thou art" (John Keats) \\ "Welcome, O life! I go to encounter for the millionth time the reality of experience and to forge in the smithy of my soul the uncreated conscience of my race." (James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man)

7. Assonance: идентичность или похожесть внутренних звуков в словах стоящих рядом: Those images that yet \ Fresh images beget,
That dolphin-torn, that gong-tormented sea." (W.B. Yeats, "Byzantium")\\ "The spider skins lie on their sides, translucent and ragged, their legs drying in knots." (Annie Dillard, Holy the Firm)\\ "Old age should burn and rave at close of day; Rage, rage, against the dying of the light." (Dylan Thomas, "Do not go gentle into that good night")

8.гипербола - заведомое преувеличение, повышающее экспрессивность высказывания, "Ladies and gentlemen, I've been to Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan, and I can say without hyperbole that this is a million times worse than all of them put together." (Kent Brockman, The Simpsons)\\ "O for the gift of Rostand's Cyrano to invoke the vastness of that nose alone as it cleaves the giant screen from east to west, bisects it from north to south. It zigzags across our horizon like a bolt of fleshy lightning." (John Simon, review of Barbra Streisand in A Star Is Born, 1976).\\ "If we're going to start crucifying people for hyperbole in this society, there's going to be a long line. If I were writing a diet book, I wouldn't say, 'It's going to take a lot of work and it'll be a pain in the butt.' I'd say, 'Thin thighs in 30 days!'" (Matthew Lesko. The Week, August 3, 2007)

9.EUPHEMISM:From the Greek, "use of good words":Dr. House: I'm busy.
Thirteen: We need you to . . .
Dr. House: Actually, as you can see, I'm not busy. It's just a euphemism for "get the hell out of here." ("Dying Changes Everything," House, M.D.)

Dr. House: Who were you going to kill in Bolivia? My old housekeeper?
Dr. Terzi: We don't kill anyone.
Dr. House: I'm sorry--who were you going to marginalize? ("Whatever It Takes," House, M.D.)\\ Pre-owned for used or second-hand; enhanced interrogation for torture; wind for belch or fart; convenience fee for surcharge

10.метафора - скрытое сравнение, осуществляемое путем применения названия одного предмета к другому и выявляющее таким образом какую-нибудь важную черту второго: All the world's a stage, And all the men and women merely players (William Shakespeare, As You Like It) \\ "He stepped up to the plate and grabbed the bull by the horns,"\\ "You are my sun."\\ "The couch is the autobahn of the living room."\\ "That throws some light on the question."

11.метонимия –от греч. «изменение имени», троп, основанный на ассоциации по смежности. "crown" for "royalty". Описание чего-либо дается через описание окружающих предметов. Например, характер человека описывается через одежду. Detroit is still hard at work. \ I stopped at a bar and had a couple of double Scotches. They didn't do me any good. All they did was make me think of Silver Wig, and I never saw her again."

12.олицетворение - перенесение свойств человека на отвлеченные понятия и неодушевленные предметы, Personification – троп, при котором происходит олицетворение. As personifications of their respective nations, England and the U.S., John Bull and Uncle Sam became popular during the 19th century. \\ The wind stood up and gave a shout. He whistled on his fingers and Kicked the withered leaves about And thumped the branches with his hand\\
13.перифраза - замена названия предмета описательным оборотом,

14.синекдоха - замена одного названия другим по признаку количественного отношения, когда часть используется для обозначения целого, целое – для обозначения части, частное – для общего и наоборот, материал вместо вещи и т.д. От греч. "shared understanding". "The sputtering economy could make the difference if you're trying to get a deal on a new set of wheels." All hands on deck. General Motors announced cutbacks.

15.эпитет - лексико-синтаксический троп,

16. литота - нарочитое преуменьшение (understatement). Она основывается на экспрессивности отрицания и состоит из употребления частицы с антонимом, уже содержащим отрицательный префикс: it is not unlikely = it is very likely. Конструкция с литотой может иметь разные функции в сочетании с разной стилистической окраской. В разговорном стиле она передаёт преимущественно воспитанную сдержанность или иронию. В научном стиле она сообщает высказыванию большую скрытость и осторожность: it is not difficult to see = it is easy to see. Литота интересна своей национальной специфичностью. Её принято объяснять английским национальным характером, отражённым в речевом этикете англичан: английской сдержанностью в проявлении оценок и эмоций, стремлением избежать крайностей и сохранить самообладание в любых ситуациях. Например: It is rather an unusual story, isn?t it? = You lie. It would not suit me all that well. = It is impossible.
Диапазон экспрессивных возможностей весьма значителен.

17.Оксюморон – сочетание двух не сочетаемых понятий. Это стилистическая фигура, в которой сочетание контрастных по значению слов создает новое понятие или раскрывает противоречивость описываемого. От греч. «остротупой». "O brawling love! O loving hate! . . .O heavy lightness! serious vanity! \\ "A yawn may be defined as a silent yell." (G.K. Chesterton) \\ "O miserable abundance, O beggarly riches!" (John Donne, Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions)

18. Paradox – утверждение, которое противоречит себе. От греч. «невыносимый, противоположный»: "The swiftest traveler is he that goes afoot." (Henry David Thoreau, Walden) \\ "If you wish to preserve your secret, wrap it up in frankness." (Alexander Smith) \\ "A dog growls when it's angry, and wags its tale when it's pleased. Now I growl when I'm pleased and wag my tale when I'm angry." (The Cheshire Cat in Lewis Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland).

19. Chiasmus: фигура речи, в которой вторая часть выражения содержит части первой части выражения, но в другом порядке. От греческого «переворачивать», «отмечать буквой X»: "Nice to see you, to see you, nice!"
(British TV entertainer Bruce Forsyth); "[Tommy] held it as he always held it, as though he had held it always." (Bernard Malamud, "The Letter") "I flee who chases me, and chase who flees me." (Ovid)

20. Ирония – троп, при котором слова имеют значение, противоположное прямому значению. От греч. «Незнание» : "It is a fitting irony that under Richard Nixon, launder became a dirty word." (William Zinsser); "I'm aware of the irony of appearing on TV in order to decry it, so don't bother pointing that out." (Sideshow Bob, The Simpsons)

21. Ономатопея – создание слов путем звукоподражания. От лат. «создавать имена, названия»: "Tlot-tlot; tlot-tlot! Had they heard it? The horse-hoofs ringing clear; Tlot-tlot, tlot-tlot, in the distance? Were they deaf that they did not hear? (Alfred Noyes, "The Highwayman"); "Linguists almost always begin discussions about onomatopoeia with observations like the following: the snip of a pair of scissors is su-su in Chinese, cri-cri in Italian, riqui-riqui in Spanish, terre-terre in Portuguese, krits-krits in modern Greek. . . . Some linguists gleefully expose the conventional nature of these words, as if revealing a fraud." (Earl Anderson, A Grammar of Iconism, Fairleigh Dickinson, 1999); "I'm getting married in the morning! Ding dong! the bells are gonna chime." (Lerner and Loewe, "Get Me to the Church on Time," My Fair Lady)

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